Skip to main content

Full text of "The encyclopaedia britannica; a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature"

See other formats 


ywywwftw^' 


'  A     '    '       A  A  A 


yvwMM1 


.*^. 


V*^<8/ 


^  ^  ^.  ^     A  r ' 


. 


A '    AA^^^'^^^^^^*^^^^^^, 


^UMw 


..JWSi 


•  '- 

.^ 'A    ' A  A       A- 


ii^SSKSSp. 

M^M&'^  2  - :       QOT5?S8&! 


Mfvflur 


^^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF      I 
V       CALIFORNIA       J 


ENCYCLOPEDIA   BEITANNICA 


NINTH    EDITION 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BEITANNICA 


DICTIONAEY 


OF 


ARTS,   SCIENCES,   AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE 


NINTH    EDITION 


VOLUME    XV 


NEW    YORK:    CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

MDCCCLXXXIII 
[  All  Rights  reserved.  ] 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


DICTIONABY 


OF 


ARTS,   SCIENCES,   AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE 


NINTH    EDITION 


VOLUME    XV 


NEW    YORK:    CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

MDCCCLXXXIII 
[  All  Eights  reserved.  ] 


The  following  Articles  are  copyrighted  in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  permission  to  print  them  in  this 
•volume  has  been  granted  exclusively  to  A.  dr"  C.  BLACK,  Edinburgh  : — 

LOUISIANA.     Copyright,  1882,  by  HENRY  GANNETT. 
MAINE.     Copyright,  1882,  by  JOSHUA  L.  CHAMBERLAIN. 
MARYLAND.    Copyright,  1882,  by  W.  T.  BRANTLY. 
MASSACHUSETTS.    Copyright,  1882,  by  JUSTIN  WINSOR. 


Add'l 


GIFT 


-BIOLOGY 


LOO 


LOO  (formerly  called  LANTERLOO),  a  round  game  of 
cards.  Loo  may  be  played  by  any  number  of  persons ; 
from  five  to  seven  makes  the  best  game.  "  Three-card 
loo "  is  the  game  usually  played.  A  pack  of  fifty-two 
cards  is  required.  The  players  being  seated,  the  pack  is 
shuffled  and  a  card  dealt  face  upwards  to  each.  The  player 
to  whom  a  knave  falls  has  the  first  deal,  the  player  to  his 
left  deals  next,  and  so  on  in  rotation.  Each  player  is 
entitled  to  a  deal,  i.e.,  the  game  should  not  be  abandoned 
till  it  returns  to  the  original  dealer;  but,  if  there  is  a  loo 
in  the  last  deal  of  a  round,  the  game  continues  till  there  is 
a  hand  without  a  loo.  The  pack  is  cut  to  the  dealer,  who 
deals  three  cards  to  each  player  and  an  extra  hand  called 
miss.  The  dealer  turns  up  the  top  of  the  undealt  cards 
for  trumps.  The  dealer  is  sometimes  permitted  to  deal  the 
cards  in  any  order  he  pleases;  but  the  best  rule  is  to 
require  that  the  cards  be  dealt  one  at  a  time  in  rotation, 
as  at  whist.  During  the  deal  each  player  contributes  to  the 
pool  a  sum  previously  agreed  upon,  the  dealer  contributing 
double.  The  unit  for  a  single  stake  should  be  divisible  by 
three  without  a  remainder,  e.g.,  three  counters  or  three 
pence.  The  players  are  bound  to  put  in  the  stake  before 
the  deal  is  completed ;  sometimes  a  penalty  is  enforced  for 
neglect.  The  deal  being  completed  and  the  pool  formed, 
each  player  in  rotation,  beginning  from  the  dealer's  left, 
looks  at  his  cards,  and  declares  whether  he  will  play, 
resign,  or  take  miss.  If  the  former,  he  says  "I  play."  If 
he  takes  miss  he  places  his  cards  face  downwards  in  the 
middle  of  the  table,  and  takes  up  the  extra  hand.  If  he 
resigns,  he  similarly  places  his  cards  face  downwards  in  the 
middle  of  the  table.  If  miss  is  taken,  the  subsequent 
players  only  have  the  option  of  playing  or  resigning.  A 
player  who  takes  miss  must  play.  Those  who  have 
declared  to  play,  and  the  one — if  there  is  one — who  has 
taken  miss,  then  play  one  card  each  in  rotation,  beginning 
from  the  dealer's  left,  the  cards  thus  played  constituting  a 
trick.  The  trick  is  won  by  the  highest  card  of  the  suit 
led,  or,  if  trumped,  by  the  highest  trump,  the  cards  ranking 
as  at  whist.  The  winner  of  the  trick  leads  to  the  next, 
and  so  on,  until  the  hand  is  played  out.  The  cards  remain 
face  upwards  in  front  of  the  persons  playing  them. 

Rules  of  Play. — If  the  leader  holds  ace  of  trumps  he  must  lead 
it  (or  king,  if  ace  is  turned  up).     If  the  leader  has  two  trumps 


he  must  lead  one  of  them,  and  if  one  is  ace  (or  king,  ace  being 
turned  up)  he  must  lead  it.  With  this  exception  the  leader  is  not 
bound  to  lead  his  highest  trump  if  more  than  two  declare  to  play ; 
but  if  there  are  only  two  declared  players  the  leader  with  more  than 
one  trump  must  lead  the  highest.  Except  with  trumps  as  above 
stated  he  may  lead  any  card  he  chooses.  The  subs°quent  players 
must  head  the  trick  if  able,  and  must  follow  suit  if  able.  Holding 
none  of  the  suit  led,  they  must  head  ^ie  trick  with  a  trump,  if 
able.  Otherwise  they  may  play  any  card  they  please.  The  winner 
of  the  first  trick  is  subject  to  the  rules  already  stated  respecting 
the  lead,  and  in  addition  he  must  lead  a  trump  if  able  (called  trump 
after  trick). 

When  the  hand  has  been  played  out,  the  winners  of  the  tricks 
divide  the  pool,  each  receiving  one-third  of  the  amount  for  each 
trick.  If  only  one  declared  to  play,  the  dealer  plays  miss  either  for 
himself  or  for  the  pool.  If  he  plays  for  the  pool  he  must  declare 
before  seeing  miss  that  he  docs  not  play  for  himself.  Any  tricks 
lie  may  win,  when  playing  for  the  pool,  remain  there  as  an  addition 
to  the  next  pool. 

If  each  declared  player  wins  at  least  one  trick  it  is  a  single,  i.e., 
a  fresh  pool  is  made  as  already  described ;  but  if  one  of  the  declared 
players  fails  to  make  a  trick  he  is  looed.  Then,  only  the  player  who 
is  looed  contributes  to  the  next  pool,  together  with  the  dealer,  who 
puts  in  a  single  stake.  If  more  than  one  player  is  looed,  each  has  to 
contribute.  At  unlimited  loo  each  player  looed  has  to  put  in  the 
amount  there  was  in  the  pool.  But  it  is  generally  agreed  to  limit 
the  loo,  so  that  it  shall  not  exceed  a  certain  fixed  sum.  Thus,  at 
eighteen-penny  loo,  the  loo  is  generally  limited  to  half  a  guinea. 
If  there  is  less  than  the  limit  in  the  pool  the  payment  is 
regulated  as  before  ;  but  if  there  is  more  than  the  limit,  the  loo 
is  the  fixed  sum  agreed  on. 

The  game  is  sometimes  varied  by  forces,  i.e.,  by  compelling 
every  one  to  play,  either  whenever  there  is  no  loo  the  previous 
deal  (a  single),  or  whenever  clubs  are  trumps  (club  law).  When 
there  is  a  force  no  miss  is  dealt.  Irish  loo  is  played  by  allowing 
declared  players  to  exchange  some  or  all  of  their  cards  for  cards  dealt 
from  the  t9p  of  the  pack.  There  is  no  miss,  and  it  is  not  com 
pulsory  to  lead  a  trump  with  two  trumps,  unless  there  are  only 
two  declared  players.  At  five-card  loo  each  player  has  five  cards 
instead  of  three,  and  a  single  stake  should  be  divisible  by  five. 
Pam  (knave  of  clubs)  ranks  as  the  highest  trump,  whatever  suit  is 
turned  up.  There  is  no  miss,  and  cards  may  be  exchanged  as  at 
Irish  loo.  If  ace  of  trumps  is  led.  the  leader  says  "  Pam  be  civil," 
when  the  holder  of  that  card  must  pass  the  trick  if  he  can  do  so 
without  revoking.  A  flush  (five  cards  of  the  same  suit,  or  four 
with  Pam)  loos  the  board,  i.e.,  the  holder  receives  the  amount  of  a 
loo  from  every  one,  and  the  hand  is  not  played.  A  trump 
flush  takes  precedence  of  flushes  in  other  suits.  If  more  than  one 
flush  is  held,  or  if  Pam  is  held,  the  holder  is  exempted  from 
payment.  As  between  two  flushes  which  do  not  take  precedence, 
the  elder  hand  wins. 

Declaring  to  Play,  and  Playing  (three-card  loo). — Play  on  two 
trumps.  The  first  to  declare  should  play  on  an  honour  in  trumps 

XV.  —  i 


L  0  0  — L  0  P 


and  an  ace  in  plain  suits.  Play  also  on  king  of  trumps  ;  but  some 
players  throw  up  king  of  trumps  single  unless  with  it  another  king 
or  a  guarded  queen  is  held.  Also  play  on  one  trump  with  two  other 
cards  as  high  as  queens  ;  some  players  throw  up  this  hand.  Holding 
a  trump  and  two  aces,  lead  the  trump  if  three  others  declare  to 
play  ;  but  otherwise  lead  an  ace.  Do  not  play  on  a  hand  without 
a  trump  ;  except,  play  on  any  cards  that  give  a  reasonable  chance 
of  a  trick,  or  take  miss,  if  the  amount  in  the  pool  is  considerable, 
and  the  loo  is  limited.  If  the  number  of  players  is  less  than  five, 
or  if  several  throw  up,  weaker  hands  may  be  played  ;  on  the  other 
side,  if  several  have  declared  to  play,  only  a  very  strong  hand 
should  be  risked.  If  there  are  only  three  left  in,  all  others 
having  thrown  up,  miss  should  be  taken,  but  not  when  there  are 
more  than  two  to  follow  the  player  whose  turn  it  is  to  declare. 

Laws  of  Loo. — These  vary  greatly,  and  should  be  agreed  on 
before  commencing  to  play.  The  ordinary  rules,  which  loo  the 
player  for  nearly  every  error,  are  very  bad.  The  following  are 
based  on  the  laws  of  the  late  Blenheim  Club.  1.  First  knave  deals. 
2.  Each  player  has  a  right  to  shuffle.  3.  The  player  to  the  dealer's 
right  cuts  the  pack.  4.  The  dealer  must  deliver  the  cards,  one  by 
one,  in  rotation,  as  at  whist,  and  must  deal  one  card  for  miss  at  the 
end  of  each  round;  he  must  turn  up  the  top  card  of  the  undealt  cards 
for  trumps.  5.  If  the  dealer  deals  without  having  the  pack  cut, 
or  shuffles  after  it  is  cut,  or  deals  except  as  provided  in  law  4,  or 
deals  two  cards  together  and  then  deals  a  third  without  rectifying 
the  error,  or  exposes  a  card,  or  deals  too  many  cards,  he  forfeits  a 
single  to  the  pool,  and  deals  again.1  6.  The  player  to  the  left  of 
the  dealer  deals  next.  If  a  player  deals  out  of  turn,  he  may  be 
stopped  before  the  trump  card  is  turned,  otherwise  the  deal  stands 
good,  and  the  player  to  his  left  deals  next.  7.  Players  must  declare 
to  play  in  rotation,  beginning  to  the  dealer's  left.  A  player  looking 
at  his  cards  before  his  turn  forfeits  a  single  to  the  pool.  8.  A 
player  who  declares  before  his  turn,  or  who  exposes  a  card,  forfeits 
a  single  to  the  pool,  and  must  throw  up  his  hand.-  9.  If  a  declared 
player  exposes  a  card  before  his  turn  to  play,  or  plays  out  of  turn, 
or  before  all  have  declared,  or  detaches  a  card  so  that  it  can  be 
named  by  any  other  declared  player,  or  revokes,  he  must  leave  in 
the  pool  any  tricks  he  may  make,  and  forfeit  four  times  the  amount 
of  a  single.  If  he  makes  no  trick  he  is  looed,  and  there  is  no  further 
penalty.  10.  If  the  leader  holds  ace  of  trumps  and  does  not  lead 
it  (or  king,  ace  being  turned  up),  or  if  he  holds  two  trumps  and 
does  not  lead  one,  or  the  highest  of  two  or  more  trumps  when  there 
are  only  two  declared  players  (unless  his  cards  are  sequence  cards 
or  cards  of  equal  value),  or  if  a  player  does  not  head  the  trick 
when  able,  or  if  he  does  not  lead  trump  after  trick  (if  he  holds  a 
trump),  he  is  liable  to  the  same  penalty  as  in  law  9.3  11.  In  case 
of  revokes  or  errors  in  play  the  hand  must  be  replayed  if  so  desired 
by  any  one  except  the  offender.  12.  The  place  of  an  aftercomer  is 
decided  by  dealing  a  card  between  every  two  of  the  players.  The 
aftercomer  sits  where  the  first  knave  falls.  (H.  J. ) 

LOOCHOO.     See  LEW-CHEW  ISLANDS. 

LOOM.     See  WEAVING. 

LOOM,  or  LOON  (Icelandic,  Lomr),  a  name  applied  to 
water-birds  of  three  distinct  Families,  all  remarkable  for 
their  clumsy  gait  on  land.4  The  first  of  them  is  the 
Colymbidae,  to  which  the  term  DIVER  (q.v.)  is  nowadays 
usually  restricted  in  books ;  the  second  the  Podicipedidee, 
or  GREBES  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  30) ;  and  the  third  the  Alcidse,. 
The  form  Loon,  is  most  commonly  used  both  in  the  British 
Islands  and  iu  North  America  for  all  the  species  of  the 
genus  Colymbus,  or  Eudytes  according  to  some  ornitho 
logists,  frequently  with  the  prefix  Sprat,  indicating  the 
kind  of  fish  on  which  they  are.  supposed  to  prey  ;  though 
it  is  the  local  name  of  the  Great  Crested  Grebe  (Podiceps 
cristatus)  wherever  that  bird  is  sufficiently  well  known  to 
have  one;  and,  as  appears  from  Grew  (Mm.  Reg.  Soc.,p.  69), 
it  was  formerly  given  to  the  Little  Grebe  or  Dabchick  (P. 
ftuviatilis  or  minor)  as  well.  The  other  form  Loom  seems 


1  The  law  which  loos  a  player  for  misdealing  is  atrocious,  and 
should  always  be  opposed. 

2  Forfeits  of  a  single  go  to  increase  the  pool  already  formed,  and 
see  note  to  law  5. 

3  Tricks  left  in  the  pool  and  fines  under  laws  9  and  10  go  to  the 
next  pool  and  not  to  the  pool  already  formed.      Many  players  inflict 
the  penalty  of  a  loo  for  the  offences  named  in  laws  9  and  10  ;  but  the 
rule  above,  as  played  at  the  Blenheim,  is  the  best. 

4  The  word  also  takes  the  form  "  Lumme  "  (fide  Montagu),  and,  as 
Professor  Skeat   observes,    is  probably   connected  with  lame.      The 
signification  of  loon,  a  clumsy  fellow,  and  metaphorically  a  simpleton, 
is  obvious  to  any  one  who  has  seen  the  attempt  of  the  birds  to  which 
the  name  is  given  to  walk. 


more  confined  in  its  application  to  the  north,  and  is  said 
by  Mr  T.  Edmonston  (Etym.  Gloss.  Shell,  and  Orkn 
Dialed,  p.  67)  to  be  the  proper  name-  in  Shetland  of 
Golyrribiis  septentrionalis5 ;  but  it  has  come  into  common 
use  among  Arctic  seamen  as  the  name  of  the  species  of 
Guillemot  (Alca  arra  or  Iruennichi)  which  in  thousands 
throngs  the  cliffs  of  far  northern  lands,  from  whose  (hence 
called)  "loomeries"  they  obtain  a  considerable  stock  of 
wholesome  food,  while  the  writer  believes  he  has  heard  the 
word  locally  applied  to  the  RAZORBILL  (q.v.).  (A.  N.j 

LOPE  DE  VEGA.    See  VEGA  CARPIO. 

LOPEZ,  CARLOS  ANTONIO  (1790-1862),  a  Paraguayan 
ruler  of  great  ability,  born  at  Asuncion,  November  4,  1790, 
was  educated  iu  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  that  city, 
and  by  his  ability  attracted  the  hostility  of  the  dictator, 
Francia,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  forced  to  keep  in 
hiding  for  several  years.  He  acquired,  however,  by  study, 
so  unusual  a  knowledge  of  law  and  governmental  affairs 
that,  on  Francia's  death  in  1840,  he  soon  acquired  an 
almost  undisputed  control  of  the  Paraguayan  state,  which 
he  maintained  uninterruptedly  until  his  own  death  in  1862. 
He  was  successively  secretary  of  the  ruling  military  junta 
(1840-41),  one  of  the  two  consuls  (1841-44),  and 
president  with  dictatorial  powers  (1844-1862)  by  succes 
sive  elections  for  ten  and  three  years,  and  in  1857  again 
for  ten  years,  with  power  to  nominate  his  own  successor. 
Though  nominally  a  president  acting  under  a 'republican 
constitution,  he  ruled  despotically,  the  congress  assembling 
only  rarely  and  on  his  call,  and  then  only  to  ratify  his 
decrees.  His  government  was  in  general  directed  with 
wise  energy  towards  developing  the  material  resources 
and  strengthening  the  military  power  of  the  country.  His 
jealousy  of  foreign  approach  several  times  involved  him  in 
diplomatic  disputes  with  Brazil,  England,  and  the  United 
States,  which  nearly  resulted  in  war,  but  each  time  he 
extricated  himself  by  skilful  evasions.  Paraguay  rapidly 
advanced  under  his  firm  and,  on  the  whole,  patriotic 
administration.  He  died  September  10,  1862. 

LOPEZ,  FRANCISCO  SOLANO  (1826-1870),  eldest  son 
of  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez  above  noticed,  was  born  near 
Asuncion,  Paraguay,  July  24,  1826.  During  his  boyhood 
his  father  was  in  hiding,  and  in  consequence  his  education 
was  wholly  neglected.  Soon  after  his  father's  accession  to 
the  presidency,  Francisco,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year,  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Paraguayan  army,  during 
the  spasmodic  hostilities  then  prevailing  with  the  Argen 
tine  Republic.  After  receiving  successively  the  highest 
offices  of  the  state,  he  was  sent  in  1853  as  minister  to 
England,  France,  and  Italy,  to  ratify  formally  treaties 
made  with  these  powers  the  previous  year.  He  spent  a 
year  and  a  half  in  Europe,  and  succeeded  in  purchasing 
large  quantities  of  arms  and  military  supplies,  together 
with  several  steamers,  and  organized  a  project  for  building 
a  railroad  and  establishing  a  French  colony  in  Paraguay. 
He  also  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Madame  Lynch,  an 
Irish  adventuress  of  many  talents  and  popular  qualities, 
who  became  his  mistress,  and  strongly  influenced  his  later 
ambitious  schemes.  Returning  to  Paraguay,  he  became 
in  1855  minister  of  war,  and  on  his  father's  death  in  1862 
at  once  assumed  the  reins  of  government  as  vice-president, 
in  accordance  with  a  provision  of  his  father's  will,  and 
called  a  congress  by  which  he  was  chosen  president  for  ten 
years.  He  had  long  cherished  ambitious  designs,  and  now 
set  himself  to  enlarge  the  army,  and  purchase  in  Europe 
large  quantities  of  military  stores.  In  1864  he  began 
open  aggression  on  Brazil  by  demanding,  in  his  self-styled 
capacity  of  "protector  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  La  Plata," 
that  Brazil  should  abandon  her  armed  interference  in  a 

5  Dunn  and  Saxby,  however,  agree  in  giving  "  Rain-Goose  "  as  the 
name  of  this  species  in  Shetland. 


L  0  R— L  O  R 


revolutionary  struggle  then  in  progress  in  Uruguay.  No 
attention  being  paid  to  his  demand,  he  treacherously  seized 
a  Brazilian  merchant  steamer  in  the  harbour  of  Asuncion, 
and  threw  into  prison  the  Brazilian  governor  of  the  pro 
vince  of  Matto  Grosso  who  was  on  board.  In  the  follow 
ing  month  (December  1864)  he  despatched  a  force  to 
invade  Matto  Grosso,  which  seized  and  sacked  its  capital 
Cuyaba,  and  took  possession  of  the  province  and  its 
diamond  mines.  Lopez  next  sought  to  send  an  army  to 
the  relief  of  the  Uruguayan  president  Aguirro  against  the 
revolutionary  aspirant  Flores,  who  was  supported  by 
Brazilian  troops.  The  refusal  of  the  Argentine  president, 
Mitre,  to  allow  this  force  to  cross  the  intervening  province 
of  Corrientes,  was  seized  upon  by  Lopez  as  an  occasion  for 
war  with  the  Argentine  Republic. 

A  congress,  hastily  summoned  and  composed  of  his  own 
nominees,  bestowed  upon  Lopez  the  title  of  marshal,  with 
extraordinary  war  powers,  and  on  April  13,  1865,  he 
declared  war,  at  the  same  time  seizing  two  Argentine  war- 
vessels  in  the  bay  of  Corrientes,  and  on  the  next  day 
occupied  the  town  of  Corrientes,  instituted  a  provisional 
government  of  his  Argentine  partisans,  and  summarily 
announced  the  annexation  to  Paraguay  of  the  provinces  of 
Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios.  Meantime  the  party  of  Flores 
had  been  successful  in  Uruguay,  and  that  state  on  April 
18  united  with  the  Argentine  Republic  in  a  declaration 
of  war  on  Paraguay,  the  news  of  the  treacherous  proceed 
ings  of  Lopez  having  then  but  just  reached  Buenos  Ayres. 
On  May  1st  Brazil  joined  these  two  states  in  a  secret 
alliance,  which  stipulated  that  they  should  unitedly 
prosecute  the  >*war  "  until  the  existing  government  of 
Paraguay  should  be  overthrown,"  and  "  until  no  arms  or 
elements  of  war  should  be  left  to  it."  This  agreement 
was  literally  carried  out. 

The  war  which  ensued,  lasting  until  April  1,  1870,  was 
on  the  largest  scale  of  any  that  South  America  had 
experienced,  and  was  carried  on  with  great  stubbornness 
and  with  alternating  fortunes,  though  with  a  steadily 
increasing  tide  of  disasters  to  Lopez  (see  PARAGUAY).  In 
18G8,  when  the  allies  were  pressing  him  hard  before  the 
various  strongholds  still  remaining  to  him  in  Paraguay,  his 
mind,  naturally  suspicious  and  revengeful,  led  him  to 
conceive  that  a  conspiracy  had  been  formed  against  his 
life  in  his  own  capital  and  by  his  chief  adherents. 
His  bloodthirsty  rage  knew  no  bounds.  In  a  short  time 
several  hundred  of  the  chief  Paraguayan  citizens  were 
seized  and  executed  by  his  order,  including  his  brothers 
and  brothers-in-law,  cabinet  ministers,  judges,  prefects, 
military  officers  of  the  highest  grade,  the  bishops  and 
priests,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  civil  officers,  together  with 
more  than  two  hundred  foreigners,  among  them  several 
members  of  the  different  diplomatic  legations. 

Lopez  was  at  last  driven  with  a  mere  handful  of  troops 
to  the  northern  frontier  of  Paraguay,  where  on  April  1, 
1870,  he  was  surprised  by  a  Brazilian  force  and  killed  as 
he  was  endeavouring  to  escape  by  swimming  the  river 
Aquidaban.  His  ill-starred  ambition  had  in  a  few  years 
reduced  Paraguay  from  the  prosperity  which  it  had  enjoyed 
under  his  father  to  a  condition  of  hopeless  weakness,  and 
it  has  since  remained  a  virtual  dependency  of  Brazil. 

LORCA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  on 
the  right  side  of  the  Sangonera  (here  called  the  Guada- 
lentin),  by  which  it  is  separated  from  the  suburb  or  quarter 
of  San  Cristobal.  It  is  situated  about  38  miles  west  from 
Cartagena,  and  37  south-west  from  Murcia,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra  del  Cano,  The  principal  buildings  are  the  col 
legiate  church  of  San  Patricio,  with  a  Corinthian  facade, 
and  the  parish  church  of  Santa  Maria,  in  the  Gothic  style. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  soda,  saltpetre,  gunpowder, 
and  cloth ;  the  trade,  apart  from  that  which  these  articles 


involve,  is  insignificant.     The  population  of  the  munici 
pality  was  52,934  in  1877. 

Lorca  (Arab.  LurTca)  is  the  Eliocroca  of  the  Ttin.  Ant.,  and  pro 
bably  also  the  Ilorci  of  Pliny  (iii.  3).  It  was  the  key  of  Murcia 
during  the  Moorish  wars,  and  was  frequently  taken  and  retaken. 
On  April  30,  1802,  it  suffered  severely  by  the  bursting  of  the 
reservoir  known  as  the  Pantano  de  Puentes,  in  which  the  waters  of 
the  Guadalentin  were  stored  for  purposes  of  irrigation  ;  the  Barrio 
de  San  Cristobal  was  completely  ruined,  and  more  than  six  hundred 
persons  perished  in  the  disaster.  In  1810  it  suffered  greatly  from 
the  French. 

LORENZO  MARQUES,  or  LOUEENCO  MARQUES,  the 
chief  place,  and  indeed  the  only  European  settlement,  in 
the  district  of  its  own  name  in  the  Portuguese  province 
of  Mozambique  in  south-eastern  Africa,  is  situated  on 
Delagoa  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lorenzo  Marques  or 
English  River,  in  25°  58'  S.  lat.  and  32°  30'  E.  long.  At 
the  time  of  Mr  Erskine's  visit  in  1871  it  was  a  poor  place, 
with  narrow  streets,  fairly  good  flat-roofed  houses,  grass 
huts,  decayed  forts,  and  rusty  cannon,  enclosed  by  a  wall 
6  feet  high  recently  erected  and  protected  by  bastions  at 
intervals.  In  1878  Governor  Castelho  returned  the  white 
population  of  all  ths  district  (whose  area  is  estimated  at 
210,000  square  miles)  as  458,  and  the  natives  as  from 
50,000  to  80,000.  A  commission  sent  by  the  Government 
in  1876  to  drain  the  marshy  land  near  the  settlement,  to 
plant  the  blue  gum  tree,  and  to  build  a  hospital  and  church, 
only  partly  accomplished  its  task,  and  other  commissions 
have  succeeded  it.  In  1878-79  a  survey  was  taken  for  a 
railway  from  Lorenzo  Marques  to  the  Transvaal  (see  Bol. 
da  Soc.  de  Geogr.  de  Lisboa,  1880),  and  the  completion  of 
this  enterprise  will  make  the  settlement  (which  already 
possesses  the  best  harbour  on  the  African  coast  between 
the  Cape  and  Zanzibar)  a  place  of  considerable  importance. 
It  became  a  regular  port  of  call  for  the  steamers  of  the 
British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company  in  1879,  and  for 
those  of  the  Donald  Currie  line  in  1880.  Since  1879  it  is 
also  a  station  on  the  telegraph  line  between  Aden  and  South 
Africa.  Both  Germany  and  England  maintain  consular 
agents  in  the  settlement. 

See  DELAGOA  BAY,  vol.  vii.  p.  40  ;  and  Lobo  de  Bulhaes,  Les 
Colonies  portugaises  (Lisbon,  1878). 

LORETO,  a  city  in  the  province  and  circondario  of 
Ancona,  Italy,  is  situated  some  15  miles  by  rail  south-west 
from  Ancona  on  the  Ancona-Foggia  railway,  16  miles 
north-east  from  Macerata,  and  3  from  the  sea.  It 
lies  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Musone,  at  some  distance 
from  the  railway  station,  on  a  hill-side  commanding 
splendid  views  from  the  Apennines  to  the  Adriatic.  The 
city  itself  consists  of  little  more  than  one  long  narrow 
street,  lined  with  booths  for  the  sale  of  rosaries,  medals, 
crucifixes,  and  similar  objects,  the  manufacture  of  which  is 
the  sole  industry  of  the  place.  The  population  in  1871 
was  only  1241  ;  but,  when  the  suburbs  Montereale,  Porta 
Marina,  and  Casette  are  included,  the  population  is  given 
as  4755,  that  of  the  commune  being  8083.  The  number 
of  pilgrims  is  said  to  amount  to  about  500,000  annually. 
The  principal  buildings,  occupying  the  four  sides  of  the 
piazza,  are  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  the  Palazzo  Apostolico 
(designed  by  Bramante),  and  the  architecturally  insig 
nificant  cathedral  church  of  the  Holy  House  (Chiesa  della 
Casa  Santa).  The  handsome  facade  of  the  church  was 
erected  under  Sixtus  V.,  who  fortified  Loreto  and  gave  it 
the  privileges  of  a  town  (1586) ;  his  colossal  statue  stands 
in  the  middle  of  the  flight  of  steps  in  front.  Over  the 
principal  doorway  is  a  life-size  bronze  statue  of  the  Virgin 
and  Child  by  Girolamo  Lombardo ;  the  three  superb  bronze 
doors  executed  under  Paul  V.  (1605-21)  are  also  by 
Lombardo,  his  sons,  and  his  pupils.  *  The  richly  decorated 
campanile,  by  Vanvitelli,  is  of  great  height ;  the  principal 
bell,  presented  by  Leo  X.  in  1516,  weighs  11  tons.  The 


L  0  R  —  L  0  R 


interior  of  the  church  has  mosaics  by  Domenichino  and 
Guido  Reni,  a  beautiful  bronze  font  and  other  works  of 
art ;  but  the  chief  object  of  interest  is  the  Holy  House  itself, 
which  occupies  a  central  place.  It  is  a  plain  brick  build 
ing,  measuring  28  feet  by  12i,  and  13^  feet  in  height;  it 
has  a  door  on  the  north  side  and  a  window  on  the  west ; 
and  a  niche  contains  a  small  black  image  of  the  Virgin 
and  Child,  in  Lebanon  cedar,  and  richly  adorned  with 
jewels.  St  Luke  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  sculptor;  its 
workmanship  suggests  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century. 
Around  the  Santa  Casa  is  a  lofty  marble  screen,  designed 
by  Bramante,  and  executed  under  Popes  Leo  X.,  Clement 
VII.,  and  Paul  II L,  by  Andrea  Sansovino,  Girolamo 
Lombardo,  Bandinelli,  Guglielmo  della  Porta,  and  others. 
The  four  sides  represent  the  Annunciation,  the  Nativity,  the 
Arrival  of  the  Santa  Casa  at  Loreto,  and  the  Nativity  of  the 
Virgin  respectively.  The  treasury  of  the  church  contains 
a  large  variety  of  rich  and  curious  votive  offerings. 

The  legend  of  the  Holy  House,  by  which  Loreto  became  what 
has  been  not  inappropriately  called  the  Christian  Mecca,  seems  to 
have  sprung  up,  how  is  not  exactly  known,  at  the  close  of  the  crusad 
ing  period.  It  is  briefly  referred  to  in  the  Italia  Illustrata  of  Flavius 
JHondus,  secretary  to  Popes  Eugenius  IV., Nicholas  V.,Calixtus  III., 
and  Pius  II.  (ob.  1464)  ;  it  is  to  be  read  in  all  its  fulness  in  the 
"  Redemptoris  munili  Matris  Ecclesiae  Lauretana  historia,"  by  a 
certain  Teremannus,  contained  in  the  Opera  Omnia  (1576)  of  Bap- 
tista  Mantuanus.  According  to  this  narrative  the  house  at  Nazareth 
in  which  Mary  had  been  born  and  brought  up,  had  received  the 
annunciation,  and  had  lived  during  the  childhood  of  Jesus  and  after 
His  ascension,  was  converted  into  a  church  by  the  apostles,  and 
worship  continued  to  be  held  in  it  until  the  fall  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem.  Threatened  with  destruction  by  the  Turks,  it  was 
carried  by  angels  through  the  air  and  deposited  (1291)  in  the  first 
instance  on  a  hill  at  Tersato  in  Dalmatia  (some  miles  inland  from 
Zengg),  where  an  appearance  of  the  Virgin  and  numerous 
miraculous  cures  attested  its  sacredness,  which  was  confirmed  by 
investigations  made  at  Nazareth  by  messengers  from  the  governor 
of  Dalmatia.  In  1294  the  angels  carried  it  across  the  Adriatic  to 
a  wood  near  Recariati ;  from  this  wood  (lauretum),  or  from  the  name 
of  its  proprietrix  (Laureta),  the  chapel  derived  the  name  which 
it  still  retains  ("sacellum  gloriosra  Virginis  in  Latvreto "). 
From  this  spot  it  was  afterwards  (1295)  removed  to  the  present 
hill,  one  other  slight  adjustment  being  required  to  fix  it  in  its 
actual  site.  Bulls  in  favour  of  the  shrine  at  Loreto  were  issued 
by  Sixtus  IV.  in  1491  and  by  Julius  II.  in  1507,  the  last 
alluding  to  the  translation  of  the  house  with  some  caution  ("ut  pie 
creditur  et  fama  est ").  The  recognition  of  the  sanctuary  by 
subsequent  pontiffs  has  already  been  alluded  to.  In  the  end  of  the 
17th  century  Innocent  XII.  appointed  a  ' '  missa  cum  ofncio  proprio" 
for  the  feast  of  the  Translation  of  the  Holy  House,  and  the  Festum 
Translationis  Alma?  Domus  Lauretanse  B.  M.  V.  is  still  enjoined 
in  the  Spanish  Breviary  as  a  "  duplex  majus  "  (December  10).  In 
the  sixth  lesson  it  is  stated  that  "  the  house  in  which  the  Virgin  was 
born,  having  been  consecrated  to  the  divine  mysteries,  was  by  the 
ministry  of  angels  removed  from  the  power  of  the  infidels  first  to 
Dalmatia  and  afterwards  to  the  Lauretan  field  during  the  pontificate 
of  Celestine  V.  That  it  is  the  identical  house  in  which  the  Word 
was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  men  is  attested  by  papal  docu 
ments,  by  the  veneration  of  all  the  world,  by  continued  miracles, 
and  by  the  grace  of  heavenly  blessings." 

LORIENT,  capital  of  an  arr.ondissement  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Morbihan,  and  of  one  of  the  five  maritime 
prefectures  of  France,  a  military  port  and  fortified  place, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scorff,  at  its  confluence  with 
the  Blavet,  in  47°  45'  N.  lat.  and  3°  31'  W.  long.,  on  the 
railway  line  from  Nantes  to  Brest,  at  a  distance  of  1 1 7 
miles  from  the  former  and  111  from  the  latter.  The  town, 
which  is  modern  and  regularly  built,  contains  no  buildings 
of  special  architectural  or  antiquarian  interest ;  it  derives 
all  its  importance  from  its  naval  establishments  lining  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  which  include  sail-making  works, 
cooperages,  and  shops  for  all  kinds  of  ship  carpentry. 
The  rope-work  forms  a  parallelogram  more  than  1000  feet 
in  length  by  100  broad.  The  foundries,  fitting  shops,  and 
smiths'  shops  are  on  an  equally  extensive  scale,  the  forges 
numbering  eighty-four.  Of  the  graving  docks  the  largest 
is  509  feet  in  length,  about  98  in  breadth,  and  more  than 
26  feet  in  depth  below  low-water  mark.  The  Pree,  an 


area  of  40  acres  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  contains  boatbuild 
ing  yards,  steam  saw-mills,  and  wood  stores ;  a  floating 
bridge  900  feet  long  connects  it  with  the  shipbuilding 
establishments  of  Caudan,  which  occupy  the  peninsula 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Scorff  and  the  Blavet. 
Apart  from  its  naval  constructions,  in  which  Lorient  holds 
the  first  rank  in  France,  it  has  an  important  place  in  the 
manufacture  of  marine  artillery.  Private  industry  is  also 
engaged  in  engine  making.  The  trade  in  fresh  fish  and 
sardines  within  the  arrondissement  reaches  an  annual  value 
of  35  millions  of  francs.  South  from  the  town,  also  on 
the  Scorff,  is  the  harbour,  which  comprises  a  dry  dock  and 
a  wet  dock,  measuring  about  1650  feet  by  200.  The  road 
stead,  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  Blavet,  is  accessible  to 
vessels  of  the  largest  size ;  the  entrance,  3  or  4  miles 
south  from  Lorient,  which  is  defended  by  numerous  forts, 
is  marked  on  the  east  by  the  peninsula  of  Gavre  (an 
artillery  practising  ground)  and  the  fortified  town  of  Port 
Louis ;  on  the  west  are  the  fort  of  Loqueltas,  and,  higher 
up,  the  battery  of  Kernevel.  In  the  middle  of  the 
channel  is  the  granite  rock  of  St  Michel,  occupied  by  a 
powder  magazine.  Opposite  it,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Blavet,  is  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ter,  with  fish  and  oyster 
breeding  establishments,  from  which  10  millions  of  oysters 
are  annually  obtained.  Above  Lorient  on  the  Scorff,  here 
spanned  by  a  suspension  bridge,  is  Kerantrech,  a  pretty 
village  surrounded  by  numerous  country  houses.  The 
population  of  Lorient  in  1876  was  35,165,  including 
C360  of  the  military  and  official  class. 

Lorient  has  taken  the  place  of  Port  Louis  as  the  port  of  the 
Blavet.  The  latter  stands  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  hamlet  which 
was  fortified  during  the  wars  of  the  League  and  handed  over  by 
Mercreur  to  the  Spaniards.  After  the  treaty  of  Vervins  it  was 
restored  to  France,  and  it  received  its  name  of  Port  Louis  under 
liichelieu.  Some  Breton  merchants  trading  with  the  Indies  had 
established  themselves  first  at  Port  Louis,  but  in  1628  they  built 
their  warehouses  on  the  other  bank.  The  Compngnie  des  Indes, 
created  in  1664,  took  possession  of  these,  giving  them  the  name  of 
Lorient.  In  1745  the  company,  then  at  the  acme  of  its  prosperity, 
owned  thirty-five  ships  of  the  largest  class  and  many  others  of  con 
siderable  size.  The  failure  of  the  attempt  of  the  English  under 
Lestock  against  Lorient  is  still  commemorated  by  the  inhabitants 
by  an  annual  procession  on  the  first  Sunday  of  October.  The 
decadence  of  the  company  dates  from  1753.  In  1782  the  town  was 
acquired  by  purchase  by  Louis  XVI.,  on  the  bankruptcy  of  its  former 
owners,  the  Rohan-Guemene  family. 

LORRAINE  (LOTHARINGIA,  LOTHRINGEN)  is  geogra 
phically  the  extensive  Austrasian  portion  of  the  realm 
allotted  by  the  partition  treaty  of  Verdun  in  August  843 
to  the  emperor  Lothair  I.,  and  inherited  by  his  second 
son,  King  Lothair  II.,  855-869,  from  whose  days  the 
name  Regnum  Lotharii  first  arose.  This  border-land 
between  the  realms  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Franks  in 
its  original  extent  took  in  most  of  the  Frisian  lowlands 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Ems,  and  a  strip 
of  the  right  shore  of  the  Rhine  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
Bonn.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bingen  it  receded  from 
the  left  shore  of  the  river  so  as  to  exclude  the  dioceses  of 
Worms  and  Spires,  but  to  admit  a  certain  connexion  with 
Alsace.  Towards  the  west  it  included  nearly  the  whole  ter 
ritory  which  is  watered  by  the  rivers  Moselle  and  Meuse, 
and  spread  over  the  dioceses  of  Cologne,  Treves,  Metz,  Toul, 
Verdun,  Lie"ge,  and  Cambrai.  Hence  this  artificial  realm 
embraced,  broadly  speaking,  almost  all  modern  Holland 
and  Belgium  (with  the  exception  of  Flanders),  part  of  the 
Prussian  Rhine  provinces,  and  what  is  still  called  Lorraine, 
partly  French  and  partly  German,  divided,  however,  from 
Alsace  and  the  Palatinate  by  the  natural  frontier  line  of 
the  Vosgcs  and  the  Haardt  mountains.  Its  inhabitants 
were  soon  called  Illotharii,  Lotharienses,  LotJiaringi.  Lo- 
tharingia,  as  the  designation  of  the  country,  hardly  appears 
before  the  middle  of  the  10th  century. 

Up  to  this  time  Lorraine  had  belonged  alternately  to 


LORRAINE 


the  eastern  and  the  western  kingdom  ever  since  Louis 
the  German  and  Charles  the  Bald  divided  the  realm  of 
Lothair  II.  more  ethnographically  by  the  treaty  of  Meersen, 
August  8,  870.  After  the  deposition  in  887  of  the  em 
peror  Charles  III.,  who  for  a  short  time  appeared  at  the 
head  of  the  three  reunited  realms,  the  country  still 
remained  distinct,  though  the  invasions  of  the  Northmen 
and  feudal  disintegration  creeping  in  from  the  west  vied  to 
tear  it  to  pieces.  Yet  the  emperor  Arnulf,  after  his  success 
against  the  Scandinavians,  restored  some  order,  and  made 
his  son  Zwentebulch  king  over  that  part  of  the  empire  in 
894.  But  he  never  overcame  the  difficulties  inherent  in  a 
country  peopled  by  Franks,  Burgundians,  Almains,  Frisians, 
and  Scandinavians,  speaking  various  Romance  and  Teutonic 
dialects,  the  western  group  being  evidently  attracted  by 
the  growth  of  a  French,  the  eastern  by  that  of  a  German 
nationality.  King  Zwentebulch  quarrelled  with  certain 
powerful  lords,  offended  mortally  the  bishops,  especially 
that  of  Treves,  and  finally  lost  his  life  in  battle  on  the  13th 
August  900.  In  the  days  of  Louis  the  Child,  the  last  of 
the  eastern  Carolings,  there  rose  to  ducal  dignity  Reginar 
Long-neck,  count  of  Haspengau,  Hennegau,  or  Hainault, 
who  owned  a  number  of  fiefs  and  monasteries  in  the  diocese 
of  Liege.  He  found  it  profitable  to  adhere  to  Charles, 
king  of  the  Western  Franks,  especially  after  Louis's  death 
in  911.  His  son  Gisilbert  from  915  began  to  rule  the 
Lotharingians  likewise  in  opposition  to  Conrad  I.  and 
Henry  I.,  who  were  the  successors  of  Louis  the  Child, 
with  the  exception,  however,  of  Alsace  and  the  Frisian 
districts,  which  now  separated,  definitively  to  remain  with 
the  German  kingdom.  By  the  treaty  of  Bonn  (921)  the 
Lotharingian  duchy  was  ceded  formally  to  France,  until 
Henry  I.,  profiting  by  the  disunion  between  Charles  the 
Simple  and  his  rivals,  subdued  Gisilbert  and  his  dominion 
(925),  and  about  928  returned  it  to  him  with  the  hand  of 
his  daughter  as  a  member  of  the  German  kingdom,  though 
rather  more  independent  than  other  duchies.  Its  western 
frontier  now  appears  to  have  extended  up  to  the  Dutch 
Zealands. 

Henry's  son,  the  great  Otto  I.,  when  his  brother  rebelled 
in  conjunction  with  Eberhard  and  Gisilbert,  the  dukes  of 
Franconia  and  Lotharingia,  beat  and  annihilated  these  two 
vassals  (939),  and  secured  the  latter  country  by  a  treaty 
with  the  French  king  Louis  IV.,  who  married  Gisilbert's 
widow,  entrusting  it  consecutively  to  his  brother  Henry, 
to  a  Duke  Otto,  and  from  944  to  Conrad  the  Red,  his 
son-in-law.  Chiefly  with  the  help  of  the  Lotharingians  he 
invaded  France  in  order  to  reinstate  the  king,  who  had 
been  dethroned  by  his  proud  vassals.  But  a  few  years 
later,  when  Liudulf,  the  son  of  King  Otto  and  the  English 
Edith,  and  Duke  Conrad,  discontented  with  certain 
measures,  rose  against  their  father  and  lord,  the  ever- 
restless  spirit  of  the  Lotharingians  broke  out  into  new 
commotions.  The  stern  king,  however,  suppressed  them, 
removed  both  his  son  and  his  son-in-law  from  their  offices, 
and  appointed  his  youngest  brother,  the  learned  and 
statesmanlike  Brun,  archbishop  of  Cologne  and  chancellor  of 
the  realm,  to  be  also  duke  or,  as  he  is  called,  archduke  of 
Lotharingia.  Brun  snatched  what  was  still  left  of  demesne 
lands  and  some  wealthy  abbeys  like  St  Maximine  near 
Treves  from  the  rapacious  nobles,  who  had  entirely  converted 
the  offices  of  counts  and  other  functionaries  into  hereditary 
property.  He  presided  over  their  diets,  enforced  the 
public  peace,  and  defended  with  their  assistance  the  frontier 
lands  of  Germany  against  the  pernicious  influence  of  the 
death  struggle  fought  between  the  last  Carolings  of  Laon 
and  the  dukes  of  Paris.  Quelling  the  insurrections  of  a 
younger  Reginar  in  the  lower  or  ripuarian  regions,  he 
admitted  a  faithful  Count  Frederick,  who  possessed  much 
land  in  the  Ardennes,  at  Verdun,  and  at  Bar,  to  ducal 


dignit}r.  Although  the  emperor,  after  Brun's  early  death, 
October  10,  965,  took  the  border-land  into  his  own  hands, 
he  connived,  as  it  appears,  at  the  beginning  of  a  final 
division  between  an  upper  and  a  lower  duchy, — leaving  the 
first  to  Frederick  and  his  descendants,  while  the  other, 
administered  by  a  Duke  Gottfrid,  was  again  disturbed  by 
a  third  Reginar  and  h!s  brother  Lambert  of  Louvain. 
When  Otto  II.  actually  restored  their  fiefs  to  them  in  976, 
he  nevertheless  granted  the  lower  duchy  to  Charles,  a  son 
of  the  Caroling  Louis  IV.,  and  his  own  aunt  Gerberga. 
Henceforth  there  are  two  duchies  of  Lorraine,  the  official 
name  applying  originally  only  to  the  first,  but  the  two 
dignitaries  being  distinguished  as  Dvx  Mosellanorum  and 
Dux  Ripuariorum,  or  later  on  Dux  Metensis  or  Harrensit 
and  DuxLovaniensis,  de  Brabantia,  Bullionis,  or  de  Limburg. 
Both  territories  now  swarmed  with  ecclesiastical  and 
temporal  lords,  who  struggled  to  be  independent,  and, 
though  nominally  the  subjects  of  the  German  kings  and 
emperors,  frequently  held  fiefs  from  the  kings  and  the 
grand  seigneurs  of  France. 

Between  powerful  vassals  and  encroaching  neighbours  the 
imperial  delegate  in  the  lower  duchy  could  only  be  a  still 
more  powerful  seigneur.  But  Duke  Charles  became  -the 
captive  of  the  bishop  of  Laon,  and  died  in  994.  His  son, 
Duke  Otto,  dying  childless  (1004),  left  two  sisters  married 
to  the  counts  of  Louvain  and  Namur.  Between  1012  and 
1023  appears  Duke  Gottfrid  I.,  son  of  a  count  of  Verdun, 
and  supporter  of  the  emperor  Henry  II.,  who,  fighting  his 
way  against  the  counts  of  Louvain,  Namur,  Luxemburg, 
and  Holland,  is  succeeded  by  his  brother  Gozelo  I.,  hitherto 
margrave  of  Antwerp,  who  since  1033,  with  the  emperor's 
permission,  ruled  also  Upper  Lorraine,  and  defended  the 
frontier  bravely againstthe  incursions  of  Count Odo  of  Blois, 
the  adversary  of  Conrad  II.  At  his  death  (1046)  the  upper 
duchy  went  to  his  second  son  Gottfrid,  while  the  eldest, 
Gozelo  II.,  succeeded  in  the  lower,  until  he  died  childless 
(1046).  But  Gottfrid  II.  (the  Bearded),  an  energetic  but 
untrustworthy  vassal,  rebelled  twice  in  alliance  with 
King  Henry  I.  of  France  and  Count  Baldwin  V.  of  Flanders 
against  the  emperor  Henry  V.,  who  opposed  a  union  of 
the  duchies  in  such  hands.  Lower  Lorraine  therefore  was 
given  (1046)  to  Count  Frederick  of  Luxemburg,  after  whose 
death  (1065)  it  was  nevertheless  held  by  Gottfrid,  who  in 
the  mean  time,  being  banished  the  country,  had  married 
Beatrice,  the  widow  of  Boniface  of  Tuscany,  and  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  affairs  of  Italy.  As  duke  of  Spoleto 
and  champion  of  the  Holy  See  he  rose  to  great  importance 
during  the  turbulent  minority  of  Henry  IV.  When  lie 
died  December  21,  1069,  his  son  Gottfrid  III.,  the  Hunch 
backed,  succeeded  in  the  lower  duchy,  who  for  a  short  time 
was  the  husband  to  Matilda  of  Canossa,  the  daughter  of 
Boniface  and  Beatrice.  Soon,  however,  he  turned  his 
back  on  Italy  and  the  pope,  joined  Henry  IV.,  fought  with 
the  Saxon  rebels  and  Robert  of  Flanders,  and  in  the  end 
was  miserably  murdered  by  an  emissary  of  the  count  of 
Holland,  February  26,  1076.  Conrad,  the  emperor's  young 
son,  now  held  the  duchy  nominally  till  it  was  granted  1088 
to  Gottfrid  IV.,  count  of  Bouillon,  and  son  of  Ida,  a  sister 
of  Gottfrid  III.,  and  Count  Eustace  of  Boulogne,  the  hero 
of  the  first  crusade,  who  died  king  of  Jerusalem  in  1100. 
After  him  Henry,  count  of  Limburg,  obtained  the  country; 
but,  adhering  to  the  old  emperor  in  his  last  struggles,  he  was 
removed  by  the  son  in  May  1106  to  make  room  for  Gottfrid 
V.,  the  great-grandson  to  Lambert  I.,  count  of  Lorraine,  a 
descendant  of  the  first  ducal  house,  which  had  been  expelled 
by  Otto  the  Great.  Nevertheless  he  joined  his  predecessor 
in  rebellion  against  the  emperor  (1114),  but  returned  to  his 
side  in  the  war  about  the  see  of  Lidge.  Later  on  he 
opposed  King  Lothair  III.,  who  in  turn  supported  Walram, 
son  of  Henry  of  Limburg,  but  died  in  peace  with  Conrad 


LORRAINE 


III.,  January  15,  1139.  His  son  Gottfrid  VI.  was  the 
last  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  and  second  duke  of  Brabant. 
Henceforth  the  duchy  split  definitely  into  that  of  Limburg, 
the  inheritance  of  the  counts  of  Verdun,  and  that  of 
Louvain  or  Brabant,  the  dominion  of  the  ancient  line  of 
the  counts  of  Haspengau.  Various  fragments  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  counts  of  Luxemburg,  Namur,  Flanders, 
Holland,  Juliers,  &c. 

Upper  Lorraine,  a  hilly  table-land,  is  bordered  on  the 
east  by  the  ridge  of  the  Vosges,  on  the  north  by  the 
Ardennes,  and  on  the  south  by  the  table-land  of  Langres. 
Towards  the  west  the  open  country  stretches  on  into 
Champagne.  The  Meuse  and  the  Moselle,  the  latter  with 
its  tributaries  Meurthe  and  Saar,  run  through  it  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  ridge  of  the 
Argonnes.  In  this  country  Duke  Frederick  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  and  grandson  till  1033.  Afterwards  Gozelo  I. 
and  Gottfrid  the  Bearded,  Count  Albert  of  Alsace  and  his 
brother  or  nephew  Gerard,  held  the  duchy  successively 
under  very  insecure  circumstances.  The  ducal  territories 
were  even  then  on  all  sides  surrounded  and  broken  in  upon, 
not  only  by  those  of  the  three  bishops,  but  also  by  the 
powerful  counts  of  Bar.  Moreover,  when  in  1070  a  new 
dynasty  was  established  in  Theodoric,  son  of  Count  Gerard 
of  Alsace,  his  brother  Gerard  of  Vaudemorit  became  the 
founder  of  a  separate  line.  The  former  political  and  feudal 
ties  still  connected  the  duchy  with  the  empire.  The  bishops 
were  the  suffragans  of  the  archbishop  of  Treves,  who  rose 
to  be  one  of  the  prince-electors.  The  dukes,  however,  de 
scending  from  Theodoric  in  the  male  line,  though  much 
weakened  by  the  incessant  dilapidation  of  their  property, 
for  two  centuries  adhered  generally  to  the  emperor.  Duk3 
Simon  I.  was  step-brother  of  the  emperor  Lothair  III.;  his 
son  Matthew  I.  intermarried  with  the  Hohenstaufen  family. 
His  son  and  grandsons  appear  traditionally  on  the  side  of 
Henry  VI.,  Philip,  Frederick  II.,  and  but  rarely  prefer  the 
Welfish  opponent.  Later  on  Theobald  II.  and  Frederick  IV. 
supported  Albert  and  Frederick  of  Austria  against  Louis  the 
Bavarian.  Yet  during  the  same  age  French  feudalism  and 
chivalry,  French  custom  and  language,  advanced  steadily  to 
the  disadvantage  of  German  policy  and  German  idioms 
amongst  knights  and  citizens.  King  Philip  Augustus 
already  promoted  Frenchmen  to  the  sees  of  Cambrai, 
Verdun,  and  Toul.  Though  remaining  a  fief  of  the  empire, 
the  duchy  of  Lorraine  itself,  a  loose  accumulation  of 
centrifugal  elements,  was  irresistibly  attracted  by  its 
western  neighbour,  although  the  progress  of  French 
monarchy  for  a  time  was  violently  checked  by  the  English 
invasion.  Duke  Rudolf,  a  great  grandson  of  Rudolf  of 
Hapsburg,  died  at  Cr6cy  among  the  French  chivalry,  like 
his  brother-in-law  the  count  of  Bar.  To  his  son  John,  who 
was  poisoned  at  Paris  (1391),  Charles,  called  the  Bold, 
succeeded,  while  his  brother  Frederick,  who  was  slain  at 
Agincourt,  had  annexed  the  county  of  Vaudemont  by  right 
of  his  wife.  Charles,  who  died  in  1431  without  mala 
issue,  had  bestowed  his  daughter  Isabella  in  marriage  on 
Rene',  count  of  Anjou,  and  titular  king  of  Naples,  Sicily, 
and  Jerusalem,  and  also  a  French  vassal  for  fragments  of 
the  duchy  of  Bar,  and  the  fiefs  of  Pont  a  Mousson  and 
Guise.  However,  when  he  obtained  by  right  of  his  wife 
the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  he  was  defeated  by  Anthony,  .the 
son  of  Frederick  of  Vaudemont.  But  by  his  daughter 
lolanthe  marrying  Frederick  II.,  Count  Anthony's  son  and 
heir,  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar  were  in  the  end 
united  by  Rene"  II.  with  the  county  of  Vaudemont  and  its 
dependencies  Aumale,  Mayenne,  and  Elboeuf.  In  the  mean 
time  all  these  prospects  were  nearly  annihilated  by  the 
conquests  of  Charles  of  Burgundy,  who  evidently  had  chosen 
Lorraine  to  be  the  keystone  of  a  vast  realm  stretching  from 
the  North  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean.  This  new  border 


empire,  separating  Germany  from  France,  fell  almost  in 
stantly  to  pieces,  however,  when  the  bold-Burgundian  lo&t 
his  conquests  and  his  life  in  the  battle  of  Nancy,  January  4, 
1477.  After  this  the  duchy  tottered  on,  merging  ever  more 
into  the  stream  of  French  history,  though  its  bishops  were 
princes  of  the  empire  and  resided  in  imperial  cities.  At 
the  death  of  Rene'  II.  (1508),  his  eldest  son  Anthony,  who 
had  been  educated  in  the  court  of  France,  inherited 
Lorraine  with  its  dependencies.  The  second,  Claude,  was 
first  duke  of  Guise,  and  the  third,  John,  alternately  or 
conjointly  with  his  nephew  Nicolaus,  bishop  of  Metz,  Toul, 
and  Verdun,  better  known  as  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine. 
Still  the  old  connexion  reappeared  occasionally  during  the 
French  wars  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  In  1525  the 
country  was  invaded  by  German  insurgents,  and  Lutheran- 
ism  began  to  spread  in  the  towns.  When  Maurice,  elector 
of  Saxony,  and  the  German  princes  rose  against  the 
emperor  (1552),  they  sold  the  three  bishoprics  and  the 
cities  of  Toul,  Metz,  and  Verdun,  as  well  as  Cambrai,  to 
King  Henry  II.,  and  hailed  him  as  imperial  vicar  and 
vindex  libertatis  Germanise.  In  vain  did  Charles  V.  lay 
siege  to  Metz  for  nearly  three  months ;  the  town,  already 
entirely  French,  was  successfully  defended  by  the  duke  of 
Guise.  German  heresy  also  lost  its  hold  in  these  territories 
owing  to  the  Catholic  influence  of  the  house  of  Guise, 
which  ruled  the  court  of  France  during  an  eventful  period. 
Charles  II.,  the  grandson  of  Duke  Anthony,  who  as  a 
descendant  of  Charles  the  Caroling  even  ventured  to  claim 
the  French  crown  against  the  house  of  Bourbon,  had  by 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  King  Henry  II.,  two  sons.  But 
Henry,  the  eldest,  brother-in-law  to  Henry  of  Navarre, 
leaving  no  sons,  the  duchy  at  his  death,  July  31,  1624, 
reverted  to  his  brother  Francis,  who,  on  November  26, 
1625,  resigned  it  in  favour  of  his  son  Charles  III.,  the 
husband  of  Duke  Henry's  eldest  daughter.  Siding  against 
Richelieu  with  the  house  of  Austria  and  Duke  Gaston  of 
Orleans,  Charles,  after  being  driven  out  by  the  French  and 
the  Swedes,  resigned  the  duchy,  January  19,  1634;  and 
like  the  three  bishoprics  it  was  actually  allotted  to  France 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  The  duke,  however,  after 
fighting  with  the  Fronde,  and  with  Conde"  and  Spain  against 
Turenne  and  Mazarin,  and  quarrelling  in  turn  with  Spain,  was 
nevertheless  reinstated  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659) 
under  hard  conditions.  He  had  to  cede  the  duchy  of  Bar,  to 
raze  the  fortifications  of  Nancy,  and  to  yield  the  French  free 
passage  to  the  bishoprics  and  Alsace.  But,  restless  as  ever, 
after  trying  to  be  raised  among  the  princes  of  the  blood 
royal  in  return  for  a  promise  to  cede  the  duchy,  he  broke 
again  with  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  expelled  once  more  together 
with  his  nephew  and  heir  Charles  IV.  Leopold.  Both 
fought  in  the  Dutch  war  on  the  German  side  in  the  vain 
hope  of  reconquering  their  country.  When  Charles  IV. 
after  his  uncle's  death  refused  to  yield  the  towns  of  Longwy 
and  Nancy  according  to  the  peace  of  Nimeguen,  Louis 
XIV.  retained  the  duchy,  while  its  proprietor  acted  as 
governor  of  Tyrol,  and  fought  the  Turks  for  the  emperor 
Leopold  I.,  whose  sister  he  had  married.  In  the  next 
French  war  he  commanded  thj  imperial  troops.  Hence 
his  son  Leopold  Joseph,  at  the  cost  of  Saarloui?,  regained 
the  duchy  once  more  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  (1697).  This 
prince  carefully  held  the  balance  between  the  contending 
parties,  when  Europe  struggled  for  and  against  the  Bourbon 
succession  in  Spain,  so  that  his  court  became  a  sanctuary 
for  pretenders  and  persecuted  partisans.  His  second  son 
Francis  Stephen,  by  a  daughter  of  Duke  Philip  of  Orleans, 
and  his  heir  since  1729,  surrendered  the  duchy  ultimately, 
owing  to  the  defeat  of  Austria  in  the  war  for  the  Polish 
crown  (1735).  This  being  lost  by  Stanislaus  Leszczynski, 
the  father-in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  the  usufruct  of  Lorraine 
and  a  comfortable  residence  at  Nancy  were  granted  to  the 


L  O  E  —  L  0  S 


Polish  prince  till  his  death  (1766).  And  now  for  more  than 
a  century  all  Lorraine  and  Alsace  up  to  the  Rhine  were 
French.  Meanwhile  Francis  Stephen,  since  1736  the 
husband  of  Archduchess  Maria  Theresa,  had  obtained  in 
compensation  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  where  the  last 
of  the  Medici  died  in  1737.  He  became  his  wife's  coregent 
in  the  Austrian  provinces  (1740),  and  was  elected  king  of 
the  Romans  and  crowned  emperor  1745,  the  ancestor  of 
the  present  rulers  of  Austria,  When  in  the  recent  Franco- 
German  war  both  Strasburg  and  Metz  were  taken  by  the 
German  troops  after  a  gallant  defence,  the  French  had  to 
submit  in  the  peace  of  Frankfort,  May  10,  1871,  to  the 
political  and  strategical  decisions  of  the  conquerors.  Old 
German  territory,  all  Alsace,  and  a  portion  of  Lorraine, 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Saar,  the  strong  fortresses  of 
Diedenhofen  (Thionville)  and  Metz  on  the  Moselle,  with 
the  surrounding  districts,  viz.,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Moselle  and  the  Meurthe  departments,  where  here  and  there 
German  is  still  the  language  of  the  inhabitants,  were  the 
spoils  of  victory.  They  are  now  united  and  administered 
in  all  civil  and  military  matters  as  an  imperial  province  of 
the  new  German  empire. 

See  Calraet,  Hlstoirc  Ecclesiastique  et  civile  de  la  Lorraine, 
3  vols.  ;  Mascov,  Dissertatio  de  nexu  Lotharingise,  regni  dim 
imperio  Romano  Germanico  ;  TJsinger,  "Das  deutsche  Staatsgebiet 
bis  gegen  Ende  des  eilften  Jahrhunderts,"  Hist.  Zeitschrift, 
xxvii.  374  ;  Waitz,  Deutsche  Verfassungsgeschichte,  vols.  v.-vii  ; 
Giesebrecht,  Geschichte  dcr  Dcutschen  Kaiserzeit,  vols.  i.-v.  ;  Henri 
Martin,  Histoire  de  France,  17  vols. ;  Ranke,  Deutsche  Geschichte 
im  Zeitalter  dcr  Reformation,  6  vols. ;  Ranke,  Franzosische 
Geschichte,  5  vols. ;  A.  Schmidt,  Elsass  und  Lothringen,  Nachwcis 
ivie  diese  Provinzen  dem  deutschen  Seiche  verlorcn  gingcn, 
1859.  (R.  P.) 

LORY,  a  word  of  Malayan  origin  signifying  Parrot,1  in 
general  use  with  but  slight  variation  of  form  in  many 
European  languages,  is  the  name  of  certain  birds  of  the 
order  Psittaci,  mostly  from  the  Moluccas  and  New  Guinea, 
which  are  remarkable  for  their  bright  scarlet  or  crimson 
colouring,  though  also,  and  perhaps  subsequently,  applied 
to  some  others  in  which  the  plumage  is  chiefly  green.  The 
"  Lories  "  have  been  referred  to  a  considerable  number  of 
genera,  of  which  Edectus,  Lorius  (the  Domicella  of  some 
authors),  Eos,  and  C ' halcopsittacus  may  be  here  particularized, 
while  under  the  equally  vague  name  of  "  Lorikeets  "  may 
be  comprehended  the  genera  Charmosyna,  Loriciilus,  and 
Coriphilus.  By  most  systematists  some  of  these  forms 
have  been  placed  far  apart,  even  in  different  families  of 
Psittaci,  but  Garrod  has  shown  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1874, 
pp.  586-598,  and  1876,  p.  692)  the  many  common 
characters  they  possess,  which  thus  goes  some  way  to  justify 
the  relationship  implied  by  their  popular  designation.  The 
latest  and  perhaps  the  most  complete  account  of  these  birds 
is  to  be  found  in  the  first  part  of  Count  T.  Salvadori's 

1  The  anonymous  author  of  a  Vocabulary  of  the  English  and  'Malay 
Languages,  published  at  Batavia  in  1879,  in  which  the  words  are 
professedly  spelt  according  to  their  pronunciation,  gives  it  "  looree." 
Buffon  (Hist.  Nat.  Oiseaux,  vi.  p.  125)  states  that  it  comes  from  the 
bird's  cry,  which  is  likely  enough  in  the  case  of  captive  examples 
taught  to  utter  a  sound  resembling  that  of  the  name  by  which  they 
are  commonly  called.  Nieuhoff  ( Voyages  par  mer  et  par  terre  d 
differents  lieux  des  Indes,  Amsterdam,  1682-92)  seems  to  have  first 
made  the  word  "Lory"  known  (cf.  Ray,  Synops.  Avium,  p.  151). 
Crawfurd  (Diet.  Engl.  and  Malay  Languages,  p.  127)  spells  it 
"  nori "  or  "  nuri  "  ;  and  in  the  first  of  these  forms  it  is  used,  says 
Dr  Finsch  (Die  Papageien,  ii.  p.  732),  by  Pigafetta.  Aldrovandus 
(Ornithologia,  lib.  xi.  cap.  1)  noticed  a  Parrot  called  in  Java  "nor," 
and  Clusius  (Exotica,  p.  364)  has  the  same  word.  This  will  account 
for  the  name  "  noyra  "  or  "  noira  "  applied  by  the  Portuguese,  accord 
ing  to  Buffon  (ut  supra,  pp.  125-127);  but  the  modern  Portuguese 
seem  to  call  a  Parrot  generally  "  Louro,"  and  in  the  same  language 
that  word  is  used  as  an  adjective,  signifying  bright  in  colour.  The 
French  write  the  word  "  Loury  "  (cf.  Littre,  sub  voce).  The  Lory  of 
colonists  in  South  Africa  is  a  TOURACOO  (q.  v. )  ;  and  King  Lory  is  a 
name  applied  by  dealers  in  birds  to  the  Australian  Parrots  o'f  the 
genus  Aprosmictus. 


Ornitologia  delta  Papuasia  e  delle  Molucche,  published  at 
Turin  in  1880,  though  he  does  not  entirely  accept  Garrod's 
arrangement.  Of  the  genus  Edectus  the  Italian  naturalist 
admits  five  species,  namely,  E.  pectoralis  and  E.  roratus, 
(which  are  respectively  the  polychlorus  and  grandis  of  most 
authors),  E.  cardincdis  (otherwise  intermedius),  E.  wester- 
mani,  and  E.  cornelia — the  last  two  from  an  unknown 
habitat,  though  doubtless  within  the  limits  of  his  labour, 
while  the  first  seems  to  range  from  Waigiou  and  Mysol 
through  New  Guinea,  including  the  Kei  and  Aru  groups, 
to  the  Solomon  Islands,  and  the  second  is  peculiar  to  the 
Moluccas  and  the  third  to  Bouru,  Amboyna,  and  Ceram. 
Still  more  recently  Dr  A.  B.  Meyer  has  described  (Proc. 
Zool.  Society,  1881,  p.  917)  what  he  considers  to  be 
another  species,  E.  riedeli,  from  Cera  or  Seirah,  one  of  the 
Tenimber  group,  of  which  Timor  Laut  is  the  chief,  to  the 
south-west  of  New  Guinea.2  Much  interest  has  been 
excited  of  late  by  the  discovery  in  1873,  by  the  traveller 
and  naturalist  last  named,  that  the  birds  of  this  genus 
possessing  a  red  plumage  were  the  females  of  those  wearing 
green  feathers.  So  unexpected  a  discovery,  which  was 
announced  by  Dr  Meyer  on  the  4th  of  March  1874,  to 
the  Zoological  and  Botanical  Society  of  Vienna,3  naturally 
provoked  not  a  little  controversy,  for  the  difference  of 
coloration  is  so  marked  that  it  had  even  been  proposed  to 
separate  the  Green  from  the  Red  Lories  generically  4;  but 
now  the  truth  of  his  assertion  is  generally  admitted,  and 
the  story  is  very  fully  told  by  him  in  a  note  contributed 
to  Gould's  Birds  of  Neiv  Guinea  (part  viii.,  1st  October 
1878),  though  several  interesting  matters  therewith  con 
nected  are  still  undetermined.  Among  these  is  the  question 
of  the  colour  of  the  first  plumage  of  the  young,  a  point  not 
without  important  signification  to  the  student  of  phylo- 
geny.5 

Though  the  name  Lory  has  long  been  used  for  the  species 
of  Eclectiis,  and  some  other  genera  related  thereto,  some 
writers  would  restrict  its  application  to  the  birds  of  the 
genera  Lorius,  Eos,  Ckalcopsittacus,  and  their  near  allies, 
which  are  often  placed  in  a  subfamily,  Loriinse,  belonging 
to  the  so-called  Family  of  Trichoglossidee,  or  "  Brush- 
tongued  "  Parrots.  Garrod  in  the  course  of  his  investiga 
tions  on  the  anatomy  of  Psittaci  was  led  not  to  attach 
much  importance  to  the  structure  indicated  by  the  epithet 
"  brush-tongued,"  stating  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1874, 
p.  597)  that  it  "is  only  an  excessive  development  of  the 
papillae  which  are  always  found  on  the  lingual  surface." 
The  birds  of  this  group  are  very  characteristic  of  the  New- 
Guinea  Subregion,6  in  which  occur,  according  to  Count 
Salvadori,  ten  species  of  Lorius,  eight  of  Eos,  and  four  of 
Chalcopsittacus  ;  but  none  seem  here  to  require  any  further 
notice,7  though  among  them,  and  particularly  in  the  genus 
Eos,  are  included  some  of  the  most  richly-coloured  birds 
to  be  found  in  the  whole  world  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that 
more  need  be  said  of  the  so-called  Lorikeets.  (A.  N.) 

LOS  ANGELES,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Los  Angeles  county,  California,  is  situated  in  the  low 
land  between  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the  Pacific,  about  17 
miles  from  the  coast,  on  the  west  bank  of  a  stream  of  its 


2  There  seems  just  a  possibility  of  this,  however,  proving  identical 
with  either  E.  westermani  or  E.  cornelia — both  of  which  are  very  rare 
in  collections. 

3  Verhandl.  z.-b.  Gesellsch.  Wien,  1874,  p.  179  ;  and  Zool.  Garten, 
1874,  p.  161. 

4  Proc.  Zool.  Society^  1857,  p.  226. 

5  The  chemical  constitution  of  the  colouring  matter  of  the  feathers 
in  Edectus  has  been  treated  by  Dr  Krukenberg  of  Heidelberg  ( Vergl. 
physiol.   Studien,   Reihe  ii.   Abth.   i.  p.   161,   reprinted  in  Mittheil. 
Orn.   Vereines  in  Wien,  1881,  p.  83). 

6  They  extend,  however,  to  Fiji,  Tahiti,  and  Fanning  Island. 

7  Unless  it  be  Oreopsittacus  arfaki,  of  New  Guinea,  remarkable  as 
the  only  Parrot  known  as  yet  to  have  fourteen  instead  of  twelvo 
rectrices. 


8 


L  0  T  —  L  0  T 


own  name.  It  lies  483  miles  by  rail  south-south-east  of 
San  Francisco  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  is 
connected  by  branch  lines  with  Wilmington,  Santa  Monica 
(both  on  the  coast),  and  Santa  Ana.  As  the  centre  of  a 
fine  orange  and  grape  growing  country,  and  a  resort  for 
invalids,  Los  Angeles  is  a  place  of  some  importance ;  and 
since  the  opening  of  the  railways  it  has  been  in  full 
prosperity,  the  old  adobe  buildings  rapidly  giving  place  to 
more  substantial  structures.  Founded  in  1781  by  the 
Spaniards,  it  received  the  name  "  Town  of  the  Queen  of 
the  Angels "  (Pueblo  de  la  Reina  de  los  Angeles)  as  a 
tribute  to  the  beauty  and  pleasantness  of  the  spot.  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  Mexican  state  of  California  from 
1836  to  1846,  in  which  latter  year  it  was  captured  by 
United  States  forces.  The  population  has  increased  from 
5728  in  1870  to  11,311  in  1880. 

LOT,  the  ancestor  of  Moab  and  Ammon,  was  the  son  of 
Haran  and  grandson  of  Terah,  and  accompanied  his  uncle 
Abraham  in  his  migration  from  Haran  to  Canaan.  At 
Bethel1  Lot  separated  from  Abraham,  and,  while  the  uncle 
went  on  to  Hebron,  the  nephew  settled  in  the  district  of 
Sodom.  When  Jehovah  was  about  to  destroy  Sodom  and 
the  other  cities  of  the  plain  two  divine  messengers  appeared, 
spent  the  night  in  Lot's  house,  and  next  morning  led  Lot, 
his  wife,  and  his  two  unmarried  daughters  out  of  the  city. 
His  wife  looked  back  and  was  changed  to  a  pillar  of  salt,2 
but  Lot  with  his  two  daughters  escaped  first  to  Zoar  and 
then  to  the  mountains  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  the 
daughters,  supposing  themselves  the  only  survivors  of  the 
catastrophe  that  had  destroyed  their  home,  planned  and 
executed  an  incest  by  which  they  became  mothers.  The 
sons  were  the  ancestors  of  Ammon  and  Moab.  Such  is 
the  outline  of  the  Jahvistic  history  of  Lot,  which  the 
priestly  narrator  epitomizes  in  a  few  words,  the  only 
statement  peculiar  to  his  narrative  being  that  in  Gen.  xi. 
27-32.  The  account  of  Chedorlaomer's  invasion  and  of 
Lot's  rescue  by  Abraham  belongs  to  an  independent  source, 
the  age  and  historical  value  of  which  has  been  much 
disputed.  See  on  the  one  hand  Ewald,  Geschichte,  vol.  i.,  and 
Tuch  in  his  Genesis,  and  in  an  essay  originally  published 
in  Z.D.M.G.,  vol.  i.,  and  reprinted  in  the  second  edition  of 
his  Genesis,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  essay  in  Noldeke, 
Untersuchungen,  and  Wellhausen,  ut  supra,  p.  414. 

The  name  Lot  (Oi?)  signifies  "a  veil,"  which  has  led  Goldzieher, 
Mythologie,  p.  216  sq.,  to  the  arbitrary  hypothesis  that  the  story  of 
Lot  and  his  daughters  is  a  myth  about  the  night.  Lot  and  his 
daughters  passed  into  Arabic  tradition  from  the  Jews.  The 
daughters  are  named  Zahy  and  Ra'wa  by  Mas'udy,  ii.  139  ;  but 
other  Arabian  writers  give  other  forms. 

LOT,  a  south-westerly  department  of  central  France, 
corresponding  to  what  was  formerly  known  as  Quercy 
(the  country  of  the  Cadurci),  a  district  of  the  old 
province  of  Guyenne,  is  situated  between  44°  12'  and  45°  5' 
N".  lat.,  and  between  1°  and  '2°  12'  E.  long.,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Correze,  on  the  W.  by  Dordogne 
and  Lot-et-Garonne,  on  the  S.  by  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  on 
the  E.  by  Aveyron  and  Cantal.  Its  extreme  length,  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  is  about  52  miles,  and  its  breadth 
from  north-west  to  south-east  31  miles,  with  an  area  of 
2013  square  miles.  It  slopes  towards  the  south-west,  from 
a  maximum  altitude  of  2560  feet  on  the  borders  of  Cantal 
to  a  minimum  of  213  feet  at  the  point  where  the  river  Lot 
quits  the  department,  through  a  wide  geological  range 
beginning  with  primary  rocks  (granite,  gneiss,  mica-schists), 

1  In  Gen.  xii.  10  sq.,  where  Abraham's  visit  to  Egypt  is  recorded, 
there  is   no   mention  of  Lot,   and  Wellhausen  (Jahrb.  f.   D.  Theol., 
1876,  p.  413)  has  made  it  probable  that  this  episode  is  no  part  of  the 
Jahvistic  narrative,  to  which  the  history  of  Lot  mainly  belongs. 

2  Such  a  pillar  in  the    neighbourhood  of  Usdum  is  described  by 
Lynch,  Narrative,  p.  307.      See  also  Robinson,  Bib.   Res.,   2d  ed., 
ii.  108. 


which  are  succeeded  by  lias,  oolitic  limestone  (occupying 
the  greater  portion  of  the  area),  chalks,  .and  finally  by 
Tertiary  formations.  The  Lot,  which  traverses  it  from  east 
to  west,  is  navigable  for  the  whole  distance  (78  miles)  with 
the  help  of  locks;  its  principal  tributary  within  the 
department  is  the  C616  (on  the  right).  In  the  north  of  the 
department  the  Dordogne  has  a  course  of  37  miles  ;  among 
its  tributaries  are  the  Cere,  which  has  its  rise  in  Cantal, 
and  the  Ouysse,  a  river  of  no  great  length,  but  remarkable 
for  the  abundance  of  its  waters.  The  streams  in  the  south 
of  Lot  all  flow  into  the  Tarn.  By  the  Dordogne  and  Lot 
the  surface  is  divided  into  a  number  of  limestone  plateaus 
known  by  the  name  of  "  causses  " ;  that  to  the  north  of 
the  Dordogne  is  called  the  Causse  de  Martel ;  between  the 
Dordogne  and  the  Lot  is  the  Causse  de  Gramat  or  de 
Rocamadour ;  south  of  the  Lot  is  the  Causse  de  Cahors. 
These  "  causses,"  owing  to  the  rapid  disappearance  of  the 
rain  through  the  faults  in  the  limestone,  have  for  the  most 
part  an  arid  appearance,  and  their  rivulets  are  generally 
mere  dry  beds;  but  their  altitude  (from  700  to  1300  feet, 
much  lower  therefore  than  that  of  the  similar  plateaus  in 
Lozere,  Hdrault,  and  Aveyron)  admits  of  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine;  they  also  yield  a  small  quantity  of  maize,  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  and  potatoes,  and  some  wood.  The  deep  interven 
ing  valleys  are  full  of  verdure,  being  well  watered  by  abund 
ant  springs  supplied  by  drainage  from  the  plateaux  above. 
The  climate  is  on  the  whole  that  of  the  Girondine  region  ; 
the  valleys  are  warm,  and  the  rainfall  is  somewhat  above  the 
average  for  France.  The  difference  of  temperature  between 
the  higher  parts  of  the  department  belonging  to  the  central 
plateau  and  the  sheltered  valleys  of  the  south-west  is  con 
siderable.  Of  the  entire  area  of  the  department  691,920 
acres  are  arable,  222,402  are  forest  land,  168,038  are 
occupied  by  vineyards,  64,250  are  heath,  and  61,778  are 
meadow.  Sheep  are  the  most  abundant  kind  of  live  stock  ; 
but  pigs,  horned  cattle,  horses,  asses,  and  mules,  and  goats 
are  also  reared,  as  well  as  poultry  in  large  quantities,  and 
bees.  Wine  is  the  principal  product  of  the  department, 
the  most  valued  being  that  of  Cahors  or  Cote  du  Lot.  It 
is  used  partly  for  blending  with  other  wines  and  partly  for 
local  consumption.  The  north-east  cantons  supply  large 
quantities  of  chestnuts ;  apples,  cherries,  and  peaches  are 
common,  and  the  department  also  grows  tobacco  and 
supplies  truffles.  The  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  deposits  are 
unimportant.  Marble,  millstones,  limestone,  and  clay  are 
obtained  to  some  extent,  but  phosphate  of  lime  is  the  most 
valuable  mineral  product  of  Lot.  The  manufactures  are 
inconsiderable ;  but  there  are  numerous  mills,  and  wool 
spinning  and  carding  as  well  as  cloth  making,  tanning, 
currying,  brewing,  and  agricultural  implement  making  are 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  exports  consist  of  grain, 
flour,  wine,  brandy,  livestock,  nuts,  truffles,  prunes,  tobacco, 
wood,  phosphate  of  lime,  leather,  and  wool.  The  popu 
lation  in  1876  was  276,512.  The  three  arrondissements 
are  Cahors,  Figeac,  and  Gourdon ;  there  are  twenty-nine 
cantons  and  three  hundred  and  twenty-three  communes. 

LOT-ET-GARONNE,  a  department  of  south-western 
France,  made  up  of  Agenais  and  Bazadais,  two  districts  of 
the  former  province  of  Guyenne,  and  Condomois  and 
Lomagne,  formerly  portions  of  Gascony,  lies  between 
43°  50' and  44°  45' N.  lat.,  and  1°  7' E.  and  8' W.  long.,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Gironde,  on  the  N.  by  Dordogne, 
on  the  E.  by  Lot  and  Tarn-et-Garonne,  on  the  S.  by  Gers, 
and  on  the  S.W.  by  Landes ;  its  extreme  length  from 
south-west  to  north-east  is  62  miles,  and  it  has  an  area  of 
2067  square  miles.  The  Garonne,  which  traverses  the 
department  from  south-east  to  north-west,  divides  it  into 
two  unequal  parts ;  in  that  to  the  north  the  slope  is  from 
east  to  west,  while  in  that  to  the  south  it  is  directly  from 
south  to  no^h.  A  small  portion  in  the  south-west  belongs 


L  0  T  — L  0  T 


9 


to  the  sterile  region  of  the  Laudes ;  the  valleys  of  the 
Garonne  and  of  the  Lot  (its  greatest  affluent  here)  on  the 
other  hand  are  proverbial  for  their  fertility.  The  wildest 
part  is  in  the  borders  of  Dordogtie,  where  oak,  chestnut, 
and  beech  forests  are  numerous ;  the  highest  point  is  also 
here  (896  feet).  The  Garonne,  where  it  quits  the  depart 
ment,  is  only  some  33  or  36  feet  above  the  sea-level ;  it  is 
navigable  throughout,  with  the  help  of  its  lateral  canal, 
as  also  are  the  Lot  and  Bayse  with  the  help  of  locks.  The 
Dropt,  a  right  affluent  of  the  Garonne  in  the  north  of  the 
department,  is  also  navigable  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course.  The  climate  is  that  of  the  Girondine  region,  the 
mean  temperature  of  Agen  being  56°'6  Fahr.,  or  5°  above 
that  of  Paris;  the  rainfall  (31 '5  inches)  is  also  above 
the  average  of  France.  Of  the  entire  area  741,342  acres 
are  arable,  210,047  are  vineyard,  172,980  under  wood, 
85,254  natural  meadow,  and  56,836  waste.  Horned  cattle 
are  tlie  chief  live  stock;  next  in  order  come  pigs,  sheep, 
horses,  asses,  and  mules,  and  a  small  number  of  goats. 
Poultry  and  bees  are  also  reared.  Its  wines  and  its  cereals 
are  a  great  source  of  wealth  to  the  department;  in  1875 
488,000  quarters  of  grain  and  14,000,000  gallons  of 
wine  were  produced.  Potatoes,  beetroot,  pulse,  and  maize 
are  also  largely  grown  ;  next  come  rye,  barley,  meslin,  and 
buckwheat.  In  1877  7759  acres  produced  5,838,849  lb 
of  tobacco,  worth  upwards  of  two  million  francs.  Colza, 
hemp,  and  flax  are  also  extensively  cultivated.  The  fruit 
harvest  (nuts,  chestnuts,  apricots)  is  large  and  valuable,  the 
prunes  which  take  their  name  from  Agen  being  especially 
in  demand.  The  forests  in  the  south-west  supply  pine 
wood  and  cork.  The  forges,  high  furnaces,  and  foundries 
of  the  department  are  important ;  brazier's  ware  is  also 
produced ;  and  there  are  workshops  for  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements  and  other  machines.  The  making 
of  plaster,  lime,  and  hydraulic  cement,  of  tiles,  bricks,  and 
pottery,  of 'confectionery  and  other  eatables,  and  brewing 
and  distilling,  occupy  many  of  the  inhabitants.  At 
Tonneins  there  is  a  national  tobacco  manufactory,  and  the 
list  of  industries  is  completed  by  the  mention  of  boatbuild 
ing,  cork  cutting,  hat  and  candle  making,  wool  spinning, 
weaving  of  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  tanning,  paper 
making,  oil  making,  and  flour  and  saw  milling.  In  1876 
the  population  was  316,920  (1100  Protestants).  The 
inhabitants  speak  a  patois  in  which  elegant  and  graceful 
works  have  been  written,  such  as  the  poems  of  JASMIN 
(q.v.).  The  arrondissements  are  four, — Agen,  Marmande, 
Ne'rac,  and  Villeneuve;  and  there  are  thirty-five  cantons 
and  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  communes. 

LOTHAIR  I.,  Roman  emperor,  eldest  son  of  Louis  the 
Pious,  was  born  in  795.  At  a  diet  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  817  he  received  Austrasia  with  the  greater  part  of 
Germany,  and  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  empire, 
while  separate  territories  were  granted  to  his  brothers 
Louis  and  Pippin.  This  arrangement  being  modified  in 
favour  of  Louis's  youngest  son  Charles  (afterwards  Charles 
the  Bald),  the  three  brothers  repeatedly  rebelled,  and  for 
a  time  Lothair  usurped  supreme  power.  After  the  death 
of  Louis  in  840,  Lothair,  as  his  successor,  claimed  the 
right  to  govern  the  whole  empire.  His  brothers  Louis 
and  Charles  (Pippin  being  dead)  united  against  him,  and 
in  841  he  was  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of  Fontenay. 
On  the  llth  of  August  843  the  war  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  by  which  Lothair  was  con 
firmed  in  the  imperial  title,  but  received  as  his  immediate 
territory  only  Italy  (which  he  had  ruled  from  822)  with 
a  long  narrow  district  reaching  past  the  Rhone  and  the 
Rhine  to  the  North  Sea.  His  subsequent  reign  was  full 
of  trouble,  for  many  of  his  vassals  had  become  virtually 
independent,  and  he  was  unable  to  contend  successfully 
with  the  Norsemen  and  the  Saracens.  In  855,  weary  of 


the  cares  of  government,  he  divided  his  kingdom  among 
his  sons,  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Priim,  where  ho 
died  on  the  28th  of  September  of  the  same  year.  As 
emperor  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  II. 

LOTHAIR  THE  SAXON,  German  king  and  Roman 
emperor,  was  originally  count  of  Suplinburg.  In  1106  he 
was  made  duke  of  Saxony  by  the  emperor  Henry  V., 
against  whom  he  afterwards  repeatedly  rebelled.  After 
the  death  of  Henry  V.  in  1125,  the  party  which  supported 
imperial  in  opposition  to  papal  claims  wished  to  grant  the 
crown  to  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia,  grandson  of  Henry 
IV.  The  papal  party,  however,  headed  by  Archbishop 
Adalbert  of  Mainz,  managed  to  secure  the  election  of 
Lothair,  who  obtained  their  favour  by  making  large  con 
cessions  by  which  he  was  afterwards  seriously  hampered. 
In  1133  he  was  crowned  emperor  in  Rome  by  Innocent 
II.,  whom  he  had  supported  in  a  disputed  papal  election. 
In  later  times  the  church  pretended  that  he  had  done 
homage  to  the  pope  for  the  empire,  but  what  he  really 
received  in  fief  was  the  hereditary  territory  of  the  Countess 
Matilda.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  engaged  in  bitter  strife 
with  the  Hohenstaufen  family,  from  whom  he  had 
demanded  the  allodial  lands  which  they  had  inherited  from 
the  emperor  Henry  V.  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia,  and 
his  brother  Conrad,  had  resisted  these  pretensions  ;  and 
Conrad  had  even  been  crowned  king  in  Milan.  The  quarrel 
was  ultimately  settled  by  the  lands  in  dispute  being 
granted  in  fief  to  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  In  order 
to  strengthen  his  position,  Lothair  had  given  his  daughter 
Gertrude  (a  child  of  eleven)  in  marriage  to  Henry  the 
Proud,  duke  of  Bavaria,  whom  he  made  also  duke  of 
Saxony.  Henry  was  further  enriched  by  receiving  the 
hereditary  and  imperial  territories  of  the  Countess  Matilda, 
so  that  the  Guelphs  became  by  far  the  most  powerful 
family  in  the  empire.  Lothair  secured  other  important 
adherents  by  giving  North  Saxony  (after  wards  Brandenburg) 
to  Albert  the  Bear,  and  Thuringia  (which  he  took  from 
Landgrave  Hermann)  to  Count  Louis.  In  his  relations  to 
the  neighbouring  populations  Lothair  acted  with  great 
vigour.  The  duke  of  Bohemia  and  the  duke  of  Poland  were 
compelled  to  do  homage,  and  the  margraviate  of  Meissen 
and  the  county  of  Burgundy  he  gave  to  two  of  his 
supporters,  the  former  to  Count  Conrad  of  Wettin,  the 
latter  to  Duke  Conrad  of  Zahringen.  The  kingdom  of 
the  Abotrites  he  granted  to  the  Danish  king  Cnut ;  and 
Cnut's  successor  Magnus  was  forced  to  accept  it  as  a  fief 
of  the  empire.  In  1136  Lothair  undertook  a  second 
expedition  to  Italy  for  the  defence  of  Pope  Innocent  II. 
against  Roger  of  Sicily,  and  after  accomplishing  his  object 
he  died  on  the  3d  of  December  1137,  in  an  Alpine  hut 
near  Trent,  on  his  way  back  to  Germany.  During  his 
reign  the  papacy  gained  ground  in  its  rivalry  with  the 
empire,  but  he  displayed  courage  and  resource  in  maintain 
ing  the  rights  of  the  crown  against  all  his  secular  opponents, 

See  Gervais,  Politiscke  GcschicMc  Dcutschlands  unter  der  Rc.gieruny 
der  Kaiser  Heinrich  V.  und  Lothar  III.,  1841-42 ;  Jaffe^ 
Geschichtc  dcs  dcutschen  Jieichs  unter  Lothar  dcm  Sachacn,  1843. 

LOTHIAN,  LOTHENE,  LAODONIA,  a  name  whose  origin 
is  unknown,1  now  preserved  in  the  three  Scottish  counties  of 
East,  West,  and  Mid  Lothian — HADDINGTON,  LINLITHGOW, 
and  EDINBURGH  (q.v.) — originally  extended  from  the  Forth 
to  the  Tweed.  The  Forth  separated  it  from  Celtic  Alba,  and 
the  Tweed  from  the  southern  part  of  Bryneich  (Bernicia). 
Its  western  boundaries  appear  to  have  been  the  Cheviots 
and  the  Lowthers.  After  the  Anglo-Saxon  migration  it 
formed  part  of  the  Anglian  kingdom  of  Northumberland, 
founded  by  Ida  the  Flame-bearer  in  547,  which  in  its 


1  Loth,  son  of  Anna,  the  sister  of  Arthur,  a  Scottish  consul  and 
lord  of  Laudonia  (Fordun,  iii.  24),  the  Llew  of  the  Arthurian  legeud 
(Skene,  Four  Books  of  Wales,  chap,  iv.),  is,  of  course,  an  eponymua. 

XV.    —    2 


10 


LOTHIAN 


widest  extent,  under  the  powerful  Northumbrian  kings  of 
the  7th  century,  reached  from  the  H umber  to  the  Forth. 
A  different  but  allied  branch  of  the  Angles  settled  along 
the  tributaries  of  the  Tweed,  and  the  Cheviot,  Lowther, 
Moorfoot,  and  Pentland  (Pictish)  hills  separated  the  colon 
ists  of  southern  Scotland  from  the  British  kingdom  of 
Strath  Clyde  or  Cumbria.  The  victories  of  Catraeth  (59G) 
and  Daegsastan  (603)  in  the  reign  of  Ethelfrith  represent 
the  close  of  the  struggle  which  drove  the  British  or  Cumbrian 
Celts  (Cymry)  into  the  western  hill  country,  afterwards 
known  -as  Westmoreland  and  Cumberland,  and  the  Picts 
to  the  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  so  that  Anglian 
Northumberland  secured  the  former  river  as  its  northern 
boundary,  and  even  for  a  time  threatened  to  pass 
it.  Edwin  of  Deira  (617-33),  the  chief  king  of  England 
in  his  time,  probably  founded  Edinburgh,  although  its 
Celtic  name  Dun  Eden  has  been  thought  by  some  to  suggest 
a  different  derivation.  Egfrid  at  the  close  of  the  7th 
century  established  an  Anglian  bishop  at  Abercorn  on  the 
Forth,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Nechtansmere,  or 
Dunnichen,  in  Forfarshire  by  the  Pictish  king  Brude  (685), 
and  Trumwins  the  bishop  at  Abercorn  was  forced  to  retire 
to  Whitby.  In  the  8th  century  the  Northumbrian  kings 
were  engaged  in  a  conflict  with  Mercia,  and  in  827  the 
supremacy  of  Egbert,  the  founder  of  the  West  Saxon 
monarchy,  was  acknowledged,  although  on  the  part  of  the 
Northumbrians  the  recognition  must  have  been  at  first 
almost  nominal,  for  it  was  not  until  more  than  a  century 
later  that  Athelstan,  by  the  victory  of  Brunanburg  (937) 
over  the  allied  Welsh,  Scots,  and  Northumbrian  Danes, 
really  extended  the  boundaries  of  the  Wessex  kingdom 
over  the  greater  part  of  Northumbria,  which  was  reduced 
to  an  earldom  by  Edred  in  954.  Athelstan  had  in  934 
ravaged  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth,  and  must  for  a  time 
have  reduced  Lothian,  the  northern  district  of  Northumber 
land,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  either  he  or  any  of  his 
successors  had  real  sovereignty  over  Lothian,  which  was 
left  to  the  rule  of  Northumbrian  earls,  sometimes  of 
Anglian  and  at  other  times  of  Danish  race.  Its  population 
continued  Anglian,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  there  are 
no  Danish  monuments  and  few  Danish  place  names 
between  the  Tweed  and  the  Forth.  The  Scottish  Celts, 
like  the  English  Anglo-Saxons,  were  during  this  period 
occupied  with  warding  off  the  Danes  and  Norsemen,  but 
about  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  Kenneth  Macalpine 
united  the  Scottish  and  Pictish  kingdoms,  and  fixed  the 
capital  at  Scone.  This  monarch  is  said  by  the  Pictish 
chronicle  to  have  six  times  invaded  Saxony  (the  name 
given  by  the  Celts  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  territory),  and  to 
have  burnt  Dunbar  and  Melrose.  The  Anglians  of 
Northumbria  had  been  converted  to  Christianity  by 
Paulinus  in  627,  and  reconverted  by  a  Celtic  mission  from 
lona  between  635  and  651  under  Aidan,  who  planted  a 
mission  station— a  southern  lona — on  the  Holy  Island,  and 
became  first  bishop  of  Lindisfarne.  Cuthbert,  one  of  his 
successors  in  this  bishopric,  which  had  become  Anglian  and 
conformed  to  the  Roman  ritual  and  discipline  after  the 
council  of  Whitby  (664),  has  the  credit  of  spreading  the 
gospel  in  Lothian,  where  he  had  been  first  monk  and  then 
prior  of  the  recently  founded  monastery  of  Melrose. 

About  the  middle  of  the  10th  century  (954-62) 
Edinburgh  was  abandoned  by  the  Northumbrian  Angles 
and  occupied  by  Indulph,  son  of  Constantine,  king  of  the 
Scots.  According  to  John  of  Wallingford  and  Roger  of 
Wendover,  Edgar  the  West  Saxon  king  ceded  in  966 
Lothian  to  Kenneth  III.,  son  of  Malcolm  I.,  on  condition 
that  he  should  do  homage  for  it  and  give  pledges  not  to 
deprive  the  people  of  that  region  of  their  ancient  customs, 
and  that  they  should  still  retain  the  name  and  language 
of  the  Angles.  This  cession,  which  is  not  in  the  older 


chronicles,  has  been  matter  of  controversy  between  Freeman 
(Norman  Conquest,  i.,  note  B,  p.  610),  who  accepts  the 
statement,  and  E.  W.  Robertson  (Scotland  under  her  Early 
Kings,  \.  390)  and  Skene  (Celtic  Scotland,  i.  370),  who 
reject  it  upon  what  appear  better  grounds.  But  the 
dispute  is  of  small  importance,  as  it  is  admitted  on  the 
authority  of  Simeon  of  Durham  that,  whether  or  not  it  was 
then  ceded  on  condition  of  homage,  it  was  annexed  to 
Scotland  by  conquest  in  1018  in  consequence  of  the  victory 
at  Carham  by  Malcolm  the  son  of  Kenneth  over  the 
Northumbrian  earl  Eadulf  Ciudel, — "  Hoc  modo,"  says 
Simeon  writing  before  1129,  "  Lodonium  adjectum  est 
regno  Scotite."  Canute  and  William  the  Conqueror  made 
temporary  conquests  of  Scotland  including  Lothian,  and 
homage  of  various  kinds  was  rendered  to  them  and  other 
Norman  monarchs,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  any  special 
homage  for  Lothian  except  in  two  dubious  charters  by 
Edgar  to  William  Rufus,  so  that  it  seems  certain  that  from 
the  beginning  of  the  llth  century  it  was  an  integral  part 
of  Scotland.  Freeman,  in  his  Historical  Geography,  styles 
it  an  English  earldom,  but  it  is  never  so  called  in  any 
authentic  record.  While  it  was  an  integral  part  of 
Scotland  its  population  was  recognized  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  the  Scottish  nation,  and  the  men  of  Lothian  are 
frequently  separately  named,  as  in  the  contemporary 
account  of  the  Battle  of  the  Standard  (1138).  It  also 
retained  its  language,  customs,  and  laws,  which  were  those 
of  the  Angles  of  Northumbria.  Although  united  in  civil 
government  to  Scotland,  Lothian,  or  at  least  many  places 
in  it,  continued  ecclesiastically  subject  to  the  see  of 
Durham,  which  had  succeeded  that  of  Lindisfarne,  until 
the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  (Stubbs  and  Haddan, 
Concilia,  ii.  p.  161),  but  it  then  came  under  the  bishop  of 
St  Andrews,  and  was  divided  into  three  rural  deaneries, 
the  Merse,  Haddington,  and  Linlithgow,  with  an  arch 
deacon  of  Lothian,  who  first  distinctly  appears  under  that 
name  at  the  commencement  of  the  13th  century. 

The  division  of  Scotland  into  shires  was  probably  made 
by  David  I.,  and  Lothian  included  the  shires  of  Berwick  or 
the  Merse  (the  march  or  borderland,  as  English  Mercia 
and  Spanish  Murcia),  Roxburgh,  and  Edinburgh,  which 
included  the  constabularies  of  Haddington  and  Linlithgow, 
afterwards  erected  into  separate  counties.  Its  principal 
burghs  —  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  and  Edinburgh  • —  formed 
along  with  Stirling  the  court  of  the  four  burghs,  whose 
laws  were  collected  by  David  I.  ("  Leges  Quatuor  Bnrg- 
orum,"  Act.  ParL  Scot.,  i.  327),  and  whose  meeting-place 
was  Haddington,  but  the  frequent  occupation  of  Berwick 
and  Roxburgh  by  the  English  caused  Lanark  and  Linlithgow 
to  be  substituted,  and  the  place  of  meeting  to  be  changed 
to  Stirling  in  1368.  The  convention  of  royal  burghs  may 
be  traced  back  to  this  court. 

The  independence  of  Scotland,  including  Lothian,  though 
frequently  disputed  by  the  English  sovereigns,  was  always 
maintained  by  the  Scotch,  except  when  surrendered  by 
William  the  Lion  as  a  prisoner  by  the  treaty  of  Falaise 
1174,  cancelled  by  Richard  I.  in  1189.  It  was  finally 
acknowledged  by  Edward  I.  in  the  treaty  of  Brigham,  but 
after  the  death  of  the  Maid  of  Norway  this  acknowledg 
ment  was  repudiated,  and  it  was  only  finally  established 
by  the  war  of  independence,  and  definitely  recognized  in 
the  treaty  of  Northampton  in  1328. 

By  a  singular  but  fortunate  series  of  events,  of  which 
the  first  was  the  marriage  of  Malcolm  Canmore  with  the 
Saxon  princess  Margaret,  Lothian,  the  Anglian  part  of  the 
Scottish  kingdom,  though  its  borderland,  became  its  centre. 
Edinburgh,  its  chief  town,  was  from  that  time  a  favourite 
residence  of  the  court,  and  under  the  Stuart  kings  became 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  Its  language,  the  dialect  of 
northern  England,  became  the  basis  of  the  Lowland  Scots, 


L  O  T  — L  0  T 


11 


at  first  called  Inglys  or  English,  but  afterwards  Scotch, 
when  Celtic,  Erse,  or  Gaelic  had  ceased  to  be  spoken  in 
the  lowland  districts,  in  distinction  from  southern  English. 
Its  customary  law,  with  additions  prior  to  the  war  of  in 
dependence  of  Norman  feudal  institutions  from  England, 
is  the  basis  of  those  parts  of  the  common  law  of  Scot 
land  which  are  not  taken  from  Roman  jurisprudence. 
And  it  was  from  Lothian  that  Anglo-Saxon  and  Anglo- 
Norman  civilization  radiated  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
Highlands  and  Islands.  (M.  M.) 

LOTTERIES.  The  word  lottery  has  no  very  definite 
signification.  It  may  be  applied  to  any  process  of 
determining  prizes  by  lot,  whether  the  object  be  amuse 
ment,  or  gambling,  or  public  profit.  In  the  Roman  Satur 
nalia  and  in  the  banquets  of  aristocratic  Romans  the  object 
was  amusement ;  the  guests  received  apoplioreta.  The 
same  plan  was  followed  on  a  magnificent  scale  by  some  of 
the  emperors.  Nero  excited  the  people  by  giving  such 
prizes  as  a  house  or  a  slave.  Heliogabalus  introduced  an 
element  of  absurdity, — one  ticket  for  a  golden  vase, 
another  for  six  flies.  This  amusing  custom  descended  to 
the  festivals  given  by  the  feudal  and  merchant  princes 
of  Europe,  especially  of  Italy ;  and  it  afterwards 
formed  a  prominent  feature  of  ths  splendid  court  hos 
pitality  of  Louis  XIV.  In  the  Italian  republics  of  the 
1 6th  century  the  lottery  principle  was  applied  to  encourage 
the  sale  of  merchandise.  The  lotto  of  Florence  and  the 
seminario  of  Genoa  are  well  known,  and  Venice  estab 
lished  a  monopoly  and  drew  a  considerable  revenue  for 
the  state.  The  first  letters  patent  for  a  lottery  in 
France  were  granted  by  Francis  L,  and  in  1656  the 
Italian  Tonti  (the  originator  of  "  Tontines  ")  opened 
another  for  the  building  of  a  stone  bridge  between  the 
Louvre  and  the  Faubourg  St  Germain.  The  institution 
became  very  popular  in  France,  and  gradually  assumed 
an  important  place  in  the  Government  finance.  The  par 
liaments  frequently  protested  against  it,  but  it  had  the 
support  of  Mazarin,  and  Pontchartrain  by  this  means 
raised  the  expenses  of  the  Spanish  Succession  War. 
Necker,  in  his  Administration  des  Finances,  estimates  the 
public  charge  for  lotteries  at  4,000,000  livres  per  annum. 
There  were  also  lotteries  for  the  benefit  of  religious  com 
munities  and  charitable  purposes.  Two  of  the  largest  were 
the  Loteries  de  Piete  and  des  Enfans  Trouves.  These  and 
also  the  great  Loterie  de  VEcole  militaire  were  practically 
merged  in  the  Loterie  Royale  by  the  famous  decree  of  1776, 
suppressing  all  private  lotteries  in  France.  The  financial 
basis  of  these  larger  lotteries  was  to  take  -^ths  for 
expenses  and  benefit,  and  return  ^f  ths  to  the  public  who 
subscribed.  The  calculation  of  chances  had  become  a 
familiar  science.  It  is  explained  in  detail  by  M.  Caminade 
de  Castres  in  Em.  Meth.  Finances,  ii.,  s.  v.  "  Loterie." 
The  names  of  the  winning  numbers  in  the  first  drawing 
were  (1)  extrait,  (2)  ambe,  (3)  terne,  (4)  quaterne,  (5)  quine. 
After  this  there  were  four  drawings  called  primes  gratuites. 
The  extrait  gave  fifteen  times  the  price  of  the  ticket ;  the 
quine  gave  one  million  times  the  price.  These  are  said  to 
be  much  more  favourable  terms  than  were  given  in  Vienna, 
Frankfort,  and  other  leading  European  cities  at  the  end 
of  the  18th  century.  There  is  no  doubt  that  lotteries  had 
a  demoralizing  effect  on  French  society.  They  were  de 
nounced  by  the  eloquent  bishop  of  Autun  as  no  better 
than  the  popular  games  of  belle  and  biribi-,  they  were 
condemned  on  financial  grounds,  by  Turgot ;  and  Con- 
dillac  compared  them  to  the  debasement  of  money  which 
was  at  one  time  practised  by  the  kings  of  France.  The 
Loterie  Royale  was  ultimately  suppressed  in  1836.  Under 
the  law  of  29th  May  1844  lotteries  may  be  held  for  the 
assistance  of  charity  arid  the  fine  arts.  The  Socie'te'  du 
Credit  Foncier,  and  many  of  the  large  towns,  are  per 


mitted  to  contract  loans,  the  periodical  repayments  of  which 
are  determined  by  lot.  This  practice,  which  is  prohibited 
in  Germany  and  England,  resembles  the  older  system  of 
giving  higher  and  lower  rates  of  interest  for  money 
according  to  lot.  Lotteries  were  suppressed  in  Belgium 
in  1830,  but  they  still  figure  largely  in  the  State  budgets 
of  Germany,  Holland,  Spain,  and  Italy. 

In  England  the  earliest  lotteries  sanctioned  by  Govern 
ment  were  for  such  purposes  as  the  repair  of  harbours  in 
1569,  and  the  Virginia  Company  in  1612.  In  1696  by  the 
Act  10  &  11  Will.  III.  c.  17  lotteries,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Royal  Oak  lottery,  were  prohibited  as  common  nuis 
ances,  by  which  children,  servants,  and  other  unwary 
persons  had  been  ruined.  This  prohibition  was  in  the  18th 
century  gradually  extended  to  illegal  insurances  on 
marriages  and  other  events,  and  to  a  great  many  games 
with  dice,  such  as  faro,  basset,  hazard,  except  back 
gammon  and  games  played  in  the  royal  palace.  In  spite 
of  these  prohibitions,  the  Government  from  1709  down  to 
1824  showed  a  bad  example  to  the  nation  by  annually 
raising  considerable  sums  in  lotteries  authorized  by  Act 
of  Parliament.  The  prizes  were  in  the  form  of  terminable 
or  perpetual  annuities.  The  £10  tickets  were  sold  at  a 
premium  of  say  40  per  cent,  to  contractors  who  resold 
them  in  retail  (sometimes  in  one-sixteenth  parts)  by 
"  morocco  men,"  or  men  with  red  leather  books  who 
travelled  through  the"  country.  As  the  drawing  extended 
over  forty  days,  a  very  pernicious  system  arose  of  insuring 
the  fate  of  tickets  during  the  drawing  for  a  small  premium 
of  4d.  or  6d.  This  was  partly  cured  by  the  Little  Go  Act 
of  1802,  42  Geo.  III.  c.  119,  directed  against  the  itinerant 
wheels  which  plied  between  the  state  lotteries,  and  partly 
by  Perceval's  Act  in  1806,  which  confined  the  drawing  of 
each  lottery  to  one  day.  From  1793  to  1824  the  Govern 
ment  made  an  average  yearly  profit  of  £346,765.  Cope, 
one  of  the  largest  contractors,  is  said  to  have  spent 
£36,000  in  advertisements  in  a  single  year.  The  English 
lotteries  were  used  to  raise  loans  for  general  purposes,  but 
latterly  they  were  confined  to  particular  objects,  such  as 
the  improvement  of  London,  the  disposal  of  Cox's  museum, 
the  purchase  of  Tomkin's  picture  gallery,  &c.  Through 
the  efforts  of  Lyttleton  and  others  a  strong  public  opinion 
was  formed  against  them,  and  in  1826  they  were  finally 
prohibited.  An  energetic  proposal  to  revive  the  system 
was  made  before  the  select  committee  on  metropolitan  im 
provements  in  1830,  but  it  was  not  listened  to.  By  a 
unique  blunder  in  legislation,  authority  was  given  to  hold 
a  lottery  under  the  Act  1  &  2  Will.  IV.  c.  8,  which  pro 
vides  a  scheme  for  the  improvement  of  the  city  of  Glasgow. 
These  "  Glasgow  lotteries  "  were  suppressed  by  4  &  5 
Will.  IV.  c.  37.  The  statute  law  in  Scotland  is  the  same 
as  in  England.  At  common  law  in  Scotland  it  is  probable 
that  all  lotteries  and  raffles,  for  whatever  purpose  held, 
may  be  indicted  as  nuisances,  The  art  unions  are  sup 
posed  to  be  protected  by  a  special  statute. 

The  American  Congress  of  1776  instituted  a  national 
lottery.  The  scheme  was  warmly  advocated  by  Jefferson 
and  other  statesmen,  and  before  1820  at  least  seventy  Acts 
were  passed  by  Congress  authorizing  lotteries  for  various 
public  purposes,  such  as  schools,  roads,  &c., — about  85  per 
cent,  of  the  subscriptions  being  returned  in  prizes.  A 
sounder  opinion  now  prevails  on  this  subject  in  America. 

The  only  systematic  work  on  this  subject  is  the  Critique  hist, 
pol.  mor.  econ.  et  comm.  sur  Us  loteries  anc.  ct.  mo  I.  spirituclles 
et  temporcllcs  des  Stats  et  des  $gliscs,  Amsterdam,  1697,  3  vols. , 
by  the  Bolognese  historian  Gregorio  Leti.  The  subject  is  also  dealt 
with  by  J.  Dessaulx  in  his  work  De  la  passion  du  jcu  depitis  Ics 
anciens  temps  jusqiC  a  nos  jours,  Paris,  1779.  (W.  C.  S.) 

LOTUS-EATERS  (Greek  Awro^ayoi)  were  a  Libyan 
tribe  known  to  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer. 
Herodotus  (iv.  177)  describes  their  country  as  in  the 


12 


L  0  T  —  L  0  T 


Syrtic  district,  and  says  that  a  caravan  route  led  from  it 
to  Egypt.  The  lotus  still  grows  there  in  great  abundance. 
It  is  a  prickly  shrub,  the  jujube  tree,  bearing  a  fruit  of  a 
sweet  taste,  compared  by  Herodotus  to  that  of  the  date  ; 
it  is  still  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  a  kind  of  wine  is  made 
from  the  juice  (see  JUJUBE).  Marvellous  tales  were 
current  among  the  early  Greeks  of  the  virtues  of  the  lotus, 
as  we  see  in  Odys.,  ix.  84.  When  Ulysses  comes  to  the 
coast  many  of  his  sailors  eat  the  lotus  and  lose  all  wish  to 
return  home.  The  idea  has  been  worked  up  by  Tennyson 
ill  a  very  fine  poem.  This  lotus  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  Egyptian  plant,  a  kind  of  water-lily  that  grows  in 
the  Nile.  See  Hitter,  Erdkitnde,  i.  ;  and  Heeren,  Ideen, 
ii.,  or  in  Historical  liesearchef,  &c. 

LOTZE,  HUDOLPH  HERMANN,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
philosophers  of  our  age,  was  born  May  21,  1817,  in 
Bautzen,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  died  at  Berlin 
1st  July  1881.  The  incidents  of  the  life  of  a  philosopher, 
especially  if  his  career  has  been  exclusively  an  academic 
one,  are  usually  passed  over  as  unimportant.  In  external 
events  no  life  could  be  less  striking  than  that  of  Lotze, 
who,  moreover,  was  of  a  retiring  disposition,  and  was  forced 
through  delicate  health  to  seclude  himself  from  even  such 
external  excitement  and  dissipation  as  the  quiet  university 
town  of  Gottingen,  where  he  passed  nearly  forty  years  of 
his  life,  might  afford.  His  interests  on  the  contrary,  as 
exhibited  in  his  various  writings,  are  most  universal ;  and 
in  a  surprising  degree  he  possessed  the  power  of  appreciat 
ing  the  wants  of  practical  life,  and  the  demands  of  a  civili 
zation  so  com  plicated  as  that  of  our  age,  so  full  of  elements 
which  have  not  yet  yielded  to  scientific  treatment.  But, 
although  in  his  teachings  he  rose  more  than  most  thinkers 
beyond  the  temporary  and  casual  influences  which  sur 
rounded  him,  it  was  significant  for  the  development  of  his 
ideas  that  the  same  country  produced  him  which  gave  to 
Germany  Lessing  and  Fichte,  that  he  received  his  education 
in  the  gymnasium  of  Zittau  under  the  guidance  of  eminent 
and  energetic  teachers,  who  nursed  in  him  a  love  and 
tasteful  appreciation  of  the  classical  authors,  of  which  in 
much  later  years  he  gave  a  unique  example  in  his  masterly 
translation  of  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles  into  Latin,  and 
that,  himself  the  son  of  a  physician,  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Leipsic  as  a  student  of  philosophy  and 
natural  sciences,  but  enlisted  officially  as  a  student  of 
medicine.  He  was  then  only  seventeen.  It  appears  that 
thus  early  Lotze's  studies  were  governed  by  two  distinct 
interests  and  emanated  from  two  centres.  The  first  was 
his  scientific  interest  and  culture,  based  upon  mathematical 
and  physical  studies,  under  the  guidance  of  such  eminent 
representatives  of  modern  exact  research  as  E.  H.  Weber, 
W.  Volckmann,  and  G.  T.  Fechner.  The  others  were  his 
sesthetical  and  artistic  predilections,  which  were  developed 
uuder  the  care  of  C.  H.  Weisse. .  To  the  former  he  owes 
his  appreciation  of  exact  investigation  and  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  aims  of  science,  to  the  latter  an  equal 
admiration  for  the  great  circle  of  ideas  which  had  been 
cultivated  and  diffused  through  the  teachings  of  Fichte, 
Schelling,  and  Hegel.  But  each  of  these  aspects,  which 
early  in  life  must  have  been  familiar  to  him,  exerted  on 
the  other  a  tempering  and  modifying  influence.  The  true 
method  of  science  which  he  possessed  forced  him  to  con 
demn  as  useless  the  entire  form  which  Schelling's  and 
Hegel's  expositions  had  adopted,  especially  the  dialectic 
method  of  the  latter,  whilst  his  love  of  art  and  beauty,  and 
his  appreciation  of  moral  purposes,  revealed  to  him  the 
existence  beyond  the  phenomenal  world  of  a  world  of 
values  or  worths  into  which  no  exact  science  could  pene 
trate.  It  is  evident  how  this  initial  position  at  once  defined 
to  him  a  variety  of  tasks  which  philosophy  had  to  perform. 
First  there  were  the  natural  sciences  themselves  only  just 


emerging  from  an  unclear  conception  of  their  true  method, — 
especially  those  which  studied  the  borderland  of  physical 
and  mental  phenomena,  the  medical  sciences,  pre-eminently 
that  science  which  has  since  become  so  popular,  ths  science 
of  biology.  Lotze's  first  essay  was  his  dissertation  De 
futures,  biologise  principibus  2^hilosophicis,  with  which  he 
gained  (1838)  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  after  having 
only  four  months  previously  got  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy.  Then,  secondly,  there  arose  the  question 
whether  the  methods  of  exact  science  sufficed  to  explain 
the  connexion  of  phenomena,  or  whether  for  the  explana 
tion  of  this  the  thinking  mind  was  forced  to  resort  to  some 
hypothesis  not  immediately  verifiable  by  observation,  but 
dictated  by  our  higher  aspirations  and  interests.  And,  if 
to  satisfy  these  we  were  forced  to  maintain  the  existence 
of  a  world  of  moral  standards,  it  was,  thirdly,  necessary  to 
form  some  opinion  as  to  the  relation  of  these  moral 
standards  of  value  to  the  forms  and  facts  of  phenomenal 
existence.  These  different  tasks,  which  philosophy  had  to 
fulfil,  mark  pretty  accurately  the  aims  of  Lotze's  writings, 
and  the  order  in  which  they  were  published.  But,  though 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  philosophical  system  very  early, 
in  his  Metaphysik  (Leipsic,  1841)  and  his  Logtk  (1843),  and 
commenced  lecturing  when  only  twenty-two  years  old  on 
philosophical  subjects,  in  Leipsic,  though  he  accepted  in 
1844  a  call  to  Gottingen  to  fill  the  chair  of  philosophy  which 
had  become  vacant  through  the  death  of  Herbart,  he  did  not 
proceed  to  an  exhaustive  development  of  his  peculiar  views 
till  very  much  later,  and  only  during  the  last  decade  of  his 
life,  after  having  matured  them  in  his  eminently  popular 
lectures,  did  he  with  much  hesitation  venture  to  present 
his  ideas  in  something  like  a  systematic  form.  The  two 
small  publications  just  referred  to  remained  unnoticed  by 
the  reading  public,  and  Lotze  became  first  known  to  a  larger 
circle  through  a  series  of  works  which  had  the  object  of 
establishing  in  the  study  of  the  physical  and  mental 
phenomena  of  the  human  organism  in  its  normal  and 
diseased  states  the  same  general  principles  which  had 
been  adopted  in  the  investigation  of  inorganic  phenomena. 
These  works  were  his  Allgemeine  Pathologic  und  Therapie 
als  mechanische  Natunvusenschaften  (Leipsic,  1842,  2d  ed. 
1848),  the  articles  "  Lebenskraft "  (1843)  and  "  Seele  und 
Seelenleben "  (1846)  in  Hud.  Wagner's  Handwortcrbuch 
der  Physiologic,  his  Allgemeine  Physiologic  des  Korperlicheu 
Lebens  (Leipsic,  1851),  and  his  Medizinische  Psychologic  odcr 
Physiologic  der  Seele  (Leipsic,  1852).  When  Lotze  came 
out  with  these  works,  medical  science  was  still  much 
under  the  influence  of  Schelling's  philosophy  of  nature. 
The  mechanical  laws,  to  which  external  things  were  subject, 
were  conceived  as  being  valid  only  in  the  inorganic  world  ; 
in  the  organic  and  mental  worlds  these  mechanical  laws 
were  conceived  as  being  disturbed  or  overridden  by  other 
powers,  such  as  the  influence  of  final  causes,  the  existence 
of  types,  the  work  of  vital  and  mental  forces.  Thi-* 
confusion  Lotze,  who  had  been  trained  in  the  school  of 
mathematical  reasoning,  tried  to  dispel.  The  laws  which 
govern  particles  of  matter  in  the  inorganic  world  govern 
them  likewise  if  they  are  joined  into  an  organism.  A 
phenomenon  a,  if  followed  by  b  in  the  one  case,  is  followed 
by  the  same  b  also  in  the  other  case.  Final  causes,  vital 
and  mental  forces,  the  soul  itself  can,  if  they  act  at  al), 
only  act  through  the  inexorable  mechanism  of  natural  laws. 
If  a  is  to  be  followed  by  d  and  not  by  b,  this  can  only  be 
effected  by  the  additional  existence  of  a  third  something  c, 
which  again  by  purely  mechanical  laws  would  change  b 
into  d.  As  we  therefore  have  only  to  do  with  the  study 
of  existing  complexes  of  material  and  spiritual  phenomena, 
the  changes  in  these  must  be  explained  in  science  by  the 
rule  of  mechanical  laws,  such  as  obtain  everywhere  in  the 
world  and  only  by  such.  One  of  the  results  of  these 


L  O  T  Z  E 


investigations  was  to  extend  the  meaning  of  the  word 
mechanism,  and  comprise  under  it  all  laws  which  obtain  in 
the  phenomenal  world,  not  excepting  the  phenomena  of 
life  and  mind.  Mechanism  was  the  unalterable  connexion 
of  every  phenomenon  a  with  other  phenomena  b,  c,  d,  either 
as  following  or  preceding  it ;  mechanism  was  the  inexorable 
form  into  which  the  events  of  this  world  are  cast,  and  by 
which  they  are  connected.  The  object  of  those  writings 
was  to  establish  the  all-pervading  rule  of  mechanism.  But 
the  mechanical  view  of  nature  is  not  identical  with  the 
materialistic.  In  the  last  of  the  above-mentioned  works 
the  question  is  discussed  at  great  length  how  we  have  to 
consider  mind,  and  the  relation  between  mind  and  body  ; 
the  answer  is — we  have  to  consider  mind  as  an  immaterial 
principle,  its  action,  however,  on  the  body  and  vice  versa 
as  purely  mechanical,  indicated  by  the  fixed  laws  of  a 
psycho-physical  mechanism.  These  doctrines  of  Lotze — 
though  pronounced  with  the  distinct  and  reiterated  reserve 
that  they  did  not  contain  a  solution  of  the  philosophical 
question  regarding  the  nature,  origin,  or  deeper  meaning 
of  this  all-pervading  mechanism,  neither  an  explanation 
how  the  action  of  external  things  on  each  other  takes  place 
nor  yet  of  the  relation  of  mind  and  body,  that  they  were 
merely  a  preliminary  formula  of  practical  scientific  value, 
itself  requiring  a  deeper  interpretation— these  doctrines 
were  nevertheless  by  many  considered  to  be  the  last  word 
of  the  philosopher  who,  denouncing  the  reveries  of 
Schelling  or  the  idealistic  theories  of  Hegel,  established  the 
science  of  life  and  mind  on  the  same  basis  as  that  of 
material  things.  Published  as  they  were  during  the  years 
when  the  modern  school  of  German  materialism  was  at  its 
height,1  these  works  of  Lotze  were  counted  among  the 
opposition  literature  which  destroyed  the  phantom  of 
Hegelian  wisdom  and  vindicated  the  independent  and  self- 
sufficing  position  of  empirical  philosophy.  Even  philo 
sophers  of  the  eminence  of  J.  H.  Fichte  (the  younger)  did 
not  escape  this  misinterpretation  of  Lotze's  true  meaning, 
though  they  had  his  Metaphysik  and  Logik  to  refer  to, 
though  he  promised  in  his  Allgemeine  Physiologic  (1851)  to 
enter  in  a  subsequent  work  upon  the  "bounding  province 
between  sesthetics  and  physiology,"  and  though  in  his 
Medicinisclie  Psychologic  he  had  distinctly  stated  that  his 
position  was  neither  the  idealism  of  Hegel  nor  the  realism 
of  Herbart,  nor  materialism,  but  that  it  was  the  conviction 
that  the  essence  of  everything  is  the  part  it  plays  in  the 
realization  of  some  idea  which  is  in  itself  valuable,  that  the 
sense  of  an  all-pervading  mechanism  is  to  be  sought  in  this 
that  it  denotes  the  ways  and  means  by  which  the  highest 
idea,  which  we  may  call  the  idea  of  the  good,  has  volun 
tarily  chosen  to  realize  itself. 

The  misinterpretations  which  he  had  suffered  induced 
Lotze  to  publish  a  small  pamphlet  of  a  polemical  character 
(Streitschriften,  Leipsic,  1857),  in  which  he  corrected  two 
mistakes.  The  opposition  which  he  had  made  to  Hegel's 
formalism  had  induced  some  to  associate  him  with  the 
materialistic  school,  others  to  count  him  among  the 
followers  of  Herbart,  the  principal  philosopher  of  eminence 
who  had  maintained  a  lifelong  protest  against  the 
development  which  Kant's  doctrines  had  met  with  at  the 
hands  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel.  Lotze  publicly 
and  formally  denied  that  he  belonged  to  the  school  of 
Herbart,  though  he  admitted  that  historically  the  same 
doctrine  which  might  be  considered  the  forerunner  of 
Herbart's  teachings  might  lead  to  his  own  views,  viz.,  the 
monadology  of  Leibnitz. 

When  Lotze  wrote  these  explanations,  he  had  already 
given  to  the  world  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work, 

1  See  Vogt,  Physiologische  Brief e,  1845-47  ;  TVIoleschott,  Der 
Krdslaufdes  Lebens,  1852  ;  Biichner,  Kraft  und  Sto/,  1855. 


Mikrolcosmus  (vol.  i.  1856,  vol.  ii.  1858,  vol.  iii.  1864; 
3d  ed.,  1876-1880).  In  many  passages  of  his  works  on 
pathology,  physiology,  and  psychology  Lotze  had  distinctly 
stated  that  the  method  of  research  which  he  advocated 
there  did  not  give  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  life 
and  mind,  but  only  the  means  of  observing  and  connecting 
them  together ;  that  the  meaning  of  all  phenomena,  and 
the  reason  of  their  peculiar  connexions,  was  a  philosophical 
problem  which  required  to  be  attacked  from  a  different 
point  of  view ;  and  that  the  significance  especially  which 
lay  in  the  phenomena  of  life  and  mind  would  only  unfold 
itself  if  by  an  exhaustive  survey  of  the  entire  life  of  man, 
individually,  socially,  and  historically,  we  gain  the  necessary 
data  for  deciding  what  meaning  attaches  to  the  existence 
of  this  microcosm,  or  small  world  of  human  life,  in  the 
macrocosm  of  the  universe.  This  review,  which  extends, 
in  three  volumes,  over  the  wide  field  of  anthropology, 
beginning  with  the  human  frame,  the  soul,  and  their  union 
in  life,  advancing  to  man,  his  mind,  and  the  course  of  the 
world,  and  concluding-  with  history,  progress,  and  the 
connexion  of  things,  ends  with  the  same  idea  which  was 
expressed  in  Lotze's  earliest  work, — MetaphysiJc.  The  view 
peculiar  to  him  is  reached  in  the  end  as  the  crowning  con 
ception  towards  which  all  separate  channels  of  thought 
have  tended,  and  in  the  light  of  which  the  life  of  man  in 
nature  and  mind,  in  the  individual  and  in  society,  had 
been  surveyed.  This*  view  can  be  briefly  stated  as  follows. 
Everywhere  in  the  wide  realm  of  observation  we  find  three 
distinct  regions, — the  region  of  facts,  the  region  of  laws, 
and  the  region  of  standards  of  value  and  worth.  These 
three  regions  are  separate  only  in  our  thoughts,  not  in 
reality.  To  comprehend  the  real  position  we  are  forced 
to  the  conviction  that  the  world  of  facts  is  the  field  in 
which,  and  that  laws  are  the  means  by  which,  those  higher 
standards  of  moral  and  ccsthetical  value  are  being  realized  ; 
and  such  a  union  can  again  only  become  intelligible  through 
the  idea  of  a  personal  Deity,  who  in  the  creation  and 
preservation  of  a  world  has  voluntarily  chosen  certain  forms 
and  laws,  through  the  natural  operation  of  which  the  ends 
of  His  work  are  gained, 

Whilst  Lotze  had  thus  in  his  published  works  closed  the 
circle  of  his  thought,  beginning  with  a  conception  meta 
physically  gained,  proceeding  to  an  exhaustive  contempla 
tion  of  things  in  the  light  it  afforded,  and  ending  with 
the  stronger  conviction  of  its  truth  which  observation, 
experience,  and  life  could  afford,  he  had  all  the  time  been 
lecturing  on  the  various  branches  of  philosophy  according 
to  the  scheme  of  academical  lectures  transmitted  from  his 
predecessors.  Nor  can  it  be  considered  anything  but  a 
gain  that  he  was  thus  induced  to  expound  his  views  with 
regard  to  those  topics,  and  in  connexion  with  those 
problems,  which  were  the  traditional  forms  of  philosophical 
utterance.  His  lectures  ranged  over  a  wide  field :  he 
delivered  annually  lectures  on  psychology  and  on  logic  (the 
latter  including  a  survey  of  the  entirety  of  philosophical 
research  under  the  title  Encydopddie  der  Philosophie},  then 
at  longer  intervals  lectures  on  metaphysics,  philosophy  of 
nature,  philosophy  of  art,  philosophy  of  religion,  rarely  on 
history  of  philosophy  and  ethics.  In  these  lectures  he 
expounded  his  peculiar  views  in  a  stricter  form,  and  during 
the  last  decade  of  his  life  he  embodied  the  substance  of 
those  courses  in  his  System  der  Philosophie,  of  which  only 
two  volumes  have  appeared  (vol.  i.  Logik,  1st  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1874,  2d  ed.,  1880  ;  vol.  ii.  Metaphysik,  1879).  The  third 
and  concluding  volume,  which  was  to  treat  in  a  more 
condensed  form  the  principal  problems  of  practical  philo 
sophy,  of  philosophy  of  art  and  religion,  did  not  appear. 
A  small  pamphlet  on  psychology,  containing  the  last  form 
in  which  he  had  begun  to  treat  the  subject  in  his  lectures 
(abruptly  terminated  through  his  death)  during  the  sum- 


14 


mer  session  of  1881,  lias  been  published  by  his  son. 
Appended  to  this  volume  is  a  complete  list  of  Lotze's 
writings,  compiled  by  Professor  Kehnisch  of  Gottingen. 

To  understand  this  series  of  Lotze's  writings,  it  is  necessary  to 
start  with  his  definition  of  philosophy.  This  is  given  after  his 
exposition  of  logic  has  established  two  points,  viz. ,  the  existence  in 
our  mind  of  certain  laws  and  forms  according  to  which  we  connect 
the  material  supplied  to  us  by  our  senses,  and,  secondly,  the  fact  that 
logical  thought  cannot  be  usefully  employed  without  the  assump 
tion  of  a  further  set  of  connexions,  not  logically  necessary,  but 
assumed  to  exist  between  the  data  of  experience  and  observation. 
These  connexions  of  a  real  not  formal  character  are  handed  to  us  ' 
by  the  separate  sciences  and  by  the  usage  and  culture  of  everyday 
life.  Language  has  crystallized  them  into  certain  definite  notions 
and  expressions,  without  which  we  cannot  proceed  a  single  step, 
but  which  we  have  accepted  without  knowing  their  exact  meaning, 
much  less  their  origin.  In  consequence  the  special  sciences  and  the 
wisdom  of  common  life  entangle  themselves  easily  and  frequently 
in  contradictions.  A  problem  of  a  purely  formal  character  thus 
presents  itself,  viz".,  this — to  try  to  bring  unity  and  harmony  into 
the  scattered  thoughts  of  our  general  culture,  to  trace  them  to  their 
primary  assumptions  and  follow  them  into  their  ultimate  con 
sequences,  to  connect  them  all  together,  to  remodel,  curtail,  or 
amplify  them,  so  as  to  remove  their  apparent  contradictions,  and  to 
combine  them  in  the  unity  of  an  harmonious  view  of  things,  and 
especially  to  make  those  conceptions  from  which  the  single  sciences 
start  as  assumptions  the  object  of  research,  and  fix  the  limits  of 
their  applicability.  This  is  the  formal  definition  of  philosophy. 
Whether  an  harmonious  conception  thus  gained  will  represent 
more  than  an  agreement  among  our  thoughts,  whether  it  will  re 
present  the  real  connexion  of  things,  and  thus  possess  objective 
not  merely  subjective  value,  cannot  be  decided  at  the  outset.  It  is 
also  unwarranted  to  start  with  the  expectation  that  everything  in 
the  world  should  be  explained  by  one  principle,  and  it  is  a  needless 
restriction  of  our  means  to  expect  unity  of  method.  Nor  are  we  able 
to  start  our  philosophical  investigations  by  an  inquiry  into  the  nature 
of  human  thought  and  its  capacity  to  attain  an  objective  knowledge, 
as  in  this  case  we  would  be  actually  using  that  instrument  the  use 
fulness  of  which  we  were  trying  to  determine.  The  main  proof 
of  the  objective  value  of  the  view  we  may  gain  will  rather  lie  in 
the  degree  in  which  it  succeeds  in  assigning  to  every  element  of 
culture  its  due  position,  or  in  which  it  is  able  to  appreciate  and 
combine  different  and  apparently  opposite  tendencies  and  interests, 
in  the  sort  of  justice  with  which  it  weighs  our  manifold  desires  and 
aspirations,  balancing  them  in  due  proportions,  nor  sacrificing  to 
a  ons-sided  principle  any  truth  or  conviction  which  experience 
has  proven  to  be  useful  and  necessary.  The  investigations  will 
then  naturally  divide  themselves  into  three  parts,  the  first  of 
which  deals  with  those  to  our  mind  inevitable  forms  in  which  we 
are  obliged  to  think  about  things,  if  we  think  at  all  (metaphysics), 
the  second  being  devoted  to  the  great  region  of  facts,  trying  to 
apply  the  results  of  metaphysics  to  these,  specially  the  two  great 
regions  of  external  and  mental  phenomena  (cosmology  and 
psychology),  the  third  dealing  with  those  standards  of  value  from 
which  we  pronounce  our  eesthetical  or  ethical  approval  or  disap 
proval.  In  each  department  we  shall  have  to  aim  first  of  all  at 
views  clear  and  consistent  within  themselves,  but,  secondly,  we  shall 
in  the  end  wish  to  form  some  general  idea  or  to  risk  an  opinion  how 
laws,  facts,  and  standards  of  value  may  be  combined  in  one  compre 
hensive  view.  Considerations  of  this  kind  will  naturally  turn  up 
in  the  two  great  departments  of  cosmology  and  psychology,  or  they 
may  be  delegated  to  an  independent  research  under  the  name  of 
religious  philosophy.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  final  con 
ception  in  which  Lotze's  speculation  culminates,  that  of  a  personal 
Deity,  Himself  the  essence  of  all  that  merits  existence  for  its  own 
sake,  who  in  the  creation  and  government  of  a  world  has  voluntarily 
chosen  certain  laws  and  forms  through  which  His  ends  are  to  be 
realized.  We  may  add  that  according  to  this  view  nothing  is  real 
but  the  living  spirit  of  God  and  the  world  of  living  spirits  which 
He  has  created  ;  the  things  of  this  world  have  only  reality  in  so 
far  as  they  are  the  appearance  of  spiritual  substance,  which  un 
derlies  everything.  It  is  natural  that  Lotze,  having  this  great 
and  final  conception  always  before  him,  works  under  its  influence 
from  the  very  beginning  of  his  speculations,  permitting  us— as 
we  progress — to  gain  every  now  and  then  a  glimpse  of  that  inter 
pretation  of  things  which  to  him  contains  the  solution  of  our  diffi 
culties. 

The  key  to  Lotze's  theoretical  philosophy  lies  in  his  metaplasias, 
to  the  exposition  of  which  important  subject  the  first  and  last  of 
his  larger  publications  have  been  devoted.  To  understand  Lotze's 
philosophy,  a  careful  and  repeated  perusal  of  these  works  is  abso 
lutely  necessary.  The  object  of  his  metaphysics  is  so  to  remodel 
the  current  notions  regarding  the  existence  of  things  and  their 
connexions  with  which  the  usage  of  language  supplies  us  as  to 
make  them  consistent  and  thinkable.  The  further  assumption, 
that  the  modified  notions  thus  gained  have  an  objective  meaning, 


and  that  they  somehow  correspond  to  the  real  order  of  the  existing 
world  which  of  course  they  can  never  actually  describe,  depends 
upon  a  general  confidence  which  we  must  have  in  our  reasoning 
powers,  and  in  the  significance  of  a  world  in  which  we  ourselves 
with  all  the  necessary  courses  of  our  thoughts  have  a  place  assigned 
to  them  in  harmony  with  the  whole.  The  object  therefore  of  these 
investigations  is  opposed  to  two  attempts  frequently  repeated  in 
the  history  of  philosophy,  viz.  : — (1)  the  attempt  to  establish  general 
laws  or  forms,  which  the  development  of  things  must  have  obeyed,  or 
which  a  Creator  must  have  followed  in  the  creation  of  a  world 
(Hegel)  ;  and  (2)  the  attempt  to  trace  the  genesis  of  our  notions,  and 
decide  as  to  their  meaning  and  value  (modern  theories  of  know 
ledge).  Neither  of  these  attempts  is  practicable.  The  world  of  many 
things  surrounds  us  ;  our  notions,  by  which  we  manage  correctly  or 
incorrectly  to  describe  it,  are  also  ready  made.  What  remains  to  be 
done  is,  not  to  explain  how  such  a  world  manages  to  be  what  it  is,  nor 
how  we  came  to  form  these  notions,  but  merely  this — to  expel  from 
the  circle  and  totality  of  our  conceptions  those  abstract  notions 
which  are  inconsistent  and  jarring,  or  to  remodel ;  nd  define  them  so 
that  they  may  constitute  a  consistent  and  harmonious  view.  In  this 
endeavour  Lotze  discards  as  useless  and  untenable  many  favourite 
conceptions  of  the  school,  many  crude  notions  of  everyday  life. 
The  course  of  things  and  their  connexion  is  only  thinkable  by  the 
assumption  of  many  things  the  reality  of  which  (as  distinguished 
from  their  existence  in  our  thoughts)  can  be  conceived  only  as  a 
multitude  of  relations.  This,  standing  in  relation  to  other  things, 
gives  to  a  thing  its  reality.  And.  the  nature  of  this  reality  again 
can  neither  be  consistently  represented  as  a  fixed  and  hard  substance 
nor  as  an  unalterable  something,  but  only  as  a  fixed  order  of  recur 
rence  of  continually  changing  events  or  impressions.  But,  further, 
every  attempt  to  think  clearly  what  those  relations  are,  what  we 
really  mean,  if  we  talk  of  a  fixed  order  of  events,  forces  upon  us 
the  necessity  of  thinking  also  that  the  different  things  which 
stand  in  relations  or  the  different  phases  which  follow  each 
other  cannot  be  merely  externally  strung  together  or  moved 
about  by  some  indefinable  external  power,  in  the  form  of  some 
predestination  or  inexorable  fate.  The  things  themselves  which 
exist  and  their  changing  phases  must  stand  in  some  internal 
connexion  ;  they  themselves  must  be  active  or  passive,  capable  of 
doing  or  suffering.  This  would  lead  to  the  view  of  Leibnitz,  that 
the  world  consists  of  monads,  self-sufficient  beings,  leading  an 
inner  life.  But  this  idea  involves  the  further  conception  of 
Leibnitz,  that  of  a  pre-established  harmony,  by  which  the  Creator 
has  cared  to  arrange  the  life  of  each  monad,  so  that  it  agrees  with 
that  of  all  others.  This  conception,  according  to  Lotze,  is  neither 
necessary  nor  thoroughly  intelligible.  Why  not  interpret  at  once 
and  render  intelligible  the  conception  of  everyday  life  originating 
in  natural  science,  viz.,  that  of  a  system  of  laws  which  governs  the 
many  things  ?  But,  in  attempting  to  make  this  conception  quite 
clear  and  thinkable,  we  are  forced  to  represent  the  connexion  of 
things  as  a  universal  substance,  the  essence  of  which  we  conceive  as 
a  system  of  laws  which  underlies  everything  and  in  its  own  self 
connects  everything,  but  imperceptible,  and  known  to  us  merely 
through  the  impressions  it  produces  on  us,  which  we  call  things. 
A  final  reflexion  then  teaches  us  that  the  nature  of  this  universal 
and  all-pervading  substance  can  only  be  imagined  by  us  as  some 
thing  analogous  to  our  own  mental  life,  where  alone  we  experience 
the  unity  of  a  substance  (which  we  call  self)  preserved  in  the 
multitude  of  its  (mental)  states.  It  also  becomes  clear  that  only 
where  such  mental  life  really  appears  need  we  assign  an  inde 
pendent  existence,  but  that  the  purposes  of  everyday  life  as  well  as 
those  of  science  are  equally  served  if  we  deprive  the  material  things 
outside  of  us  of  an  independence,  and  assign  to  them  merely  a 
connected  existence  through  the  universal  substance  by  the  action 
of  which  alone  they  can  appear  to  us. 

The  universal  substance,  which  we  may  call  the  absolute,  is 
at  this  stage  of  our  investigations  not  endowed  with  the  attributes 
of  a  personal  Deity,  and  it  will  remain  to  be  seen  by  further 
analysis  in  how  far  we  are  able — without  contradiction — to  identify 
it  with  the  object  of  religious  veneration,  in  how  far  that  which  to 
metaphysics  is  merely  a  postulate  can  be  gradually  brought  nearer 
to  us  and  become  a  living  power.  Much  in  this  direction  is  said 
by  Lotze  in  various  passages  of  his  writings  ;  anything  complete, 
however,  on  the  subject  is  wanting.  Nor  would  it  seem  as  if  it 
could  be  the  intention  of  the  author  to  do  much  more  than  point 
out  the  lines  on  which  the  further  treatment  of  the  subject  should 
advance.  The  actual  result  of  his  personal  inquiries,  the  great  idea 
which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  his  philosophy,  we  know.  It  may 
be  safely  stated  that  Lotze  would  allow  much  latitude  to  individual 
convictions,  as  indeed  it  is  evident  that  the  empty  notion  of  an 
absolute  can  only  become  living  and  significant  to  us  in  the  same 
degree  as  experienceand  thought  have  taught  us  to  realize  the  serious 
ness  of  life,  the  significance  of  creation,  the  value  of  the  beautiful 
and  the  good,  and  the  supreme  worth  of  personal  holiness.  To 
endow  the  universal  substance  with  moral  attributes,  to  maintain 
that  it  is  more  than  the  metaphysical  ground  of  everything,  to  say 
it  is  the  perfect  realization  of  the  holy,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good, 


L  O  U  — L  O  U 


15 


can  only  have  a  meaning  for  him  who  feels  within  himself  what 
real  not  imaginary  values  are  clothed  in  those  expressions. 

AVe  have  still  to  mention  that  aesthetics  formed  a  principal  and 
favourite  study  of  Lotze's,  and  that  he  has  treated  this  subject  also 
in  the  light  of  the  leading  ideas  of  his  philosophy.  See  his 
essays  Ucbcr  den  Bcgriff  dcr  Schonhcit,  Gottingen,  1845,  and  Ucbcr 
Hedingungen  dcr  Kunstschonheit,  ibid.,  1847  ;  and  especially  his 
Geschichte  dcr  Jlsthctik  in  Dcutschland,  Munich,  1868. 

Lotze's  historical  position  is  of  much  interest.  Though  he- 
disclaims  being  a  follower  of  Herbart,  his  formal  definition  of 
philosophy  and  his  conception  of  the  object  of  metaphysics  are 
similar  to  those  of  Herbart,  who  defines  philosophy  as  an  attempt 
to  remodel  the  notions  given  by  experience.  In  this  endeavour  he 
forms  with  Herbart  an  opposition  to  the  philosophies  of  Fichte, 
Schelling,  and  Hegel,  which  aimed  at  objective  and  absolute 
knowledge,  and  also  to  the  criticism  of  Kant,  which  aimed  at 
determining  the  validity  of  all  human  knowledge.  But  this  for 
mal  agreement  involves  material  differences,  and  the  spirit  which 
breathes  in  Lotze's  writings  is  more  akin  to  the  objects  and 
aspirations  of  the  idealistic  school  than  to  the  cold  formalism  of 
Herbart.  What,  however,  with  the  idealists  was  an  object  of  thought 
alone,  the  absolute,  is  to  Lotze  only  inadequately  definable  in 
rigorous?  philosophical  language ;  the  aspirations  of  the  human 
heart,  the  contents  of  our  feelings  and  desires,  the  aims  of  art,  and 
the  tenets  of  religious  faith  must  be  grasped  in  order  to  fill  the 
empty  idea  of  the  absolute  with  meaning.  These  manifestations 
of  the  divine  spirit  again  cannot  be  traced  and  understood  by 
reducing  (as  Hegel  did)  the  growth  of  the  human  mind  in  the 
individual,  in  society,  and  in  history  to  the  monotonous  rhythm  of  a 
speculative  schematism  ;  the  essence  and  worth  which  is  in  them 
reveals  itself  only  to  the  student  of  detail,  for  reality  is  larger  and 
wider  than  philosophy  ;  the  problem,  "  how  the  one  can  be  many," 
is  only  solved  for  us  in  the  numbeiiess  examples  in  life  and  experi 
ence  which  surround  us,  for  which  we  must  retain  a  lifelong 
interest,  and  which  constitute  the  true  field  of  all  useful  human 
work.  This  conviction  of  the  emptiness  of  terms  and  abstract 
notions,  and  of  the  fulness  of  individual  life,  has  enabled  Lotze  to 
combine  in  his  writings  the  two  courses  into  which  German 
philosophical  thought  had  been  moving  since  the  death  of  its  great 
founder,  Leibnitz.  We  may  define  these  courses  by  the  terms 
esoteric  and  exoteric, — the  former  the  philosophy  of  the  school, 
cultivated  principally  at  the  universities,  trying  to  systematize  every 
thing  and  reduce  all  our  knowledge  to  an  intelligible  principle, 
losing  in  this  attempt  the  deeper  meaning  of  Leibnitz's  philosophy ; 
the  latter  the  philosophy  of  general  culture,  contained  in  the 
literature  of  the  classical  period,  in  the  unsystematic  writings  of 
Lessing,  Winkelmann,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder,  who  more 
or  less  expressed  their  indebtedness  to  Leibnitz.  Lotze  can  be  said 
to  have  brought  philosophy  out  of  the  schoolroom  into  the  market 
of  life.  By  understanding  and  combining  what  was  great  and 
valuable  in  those  divided  arid  scattered  endeavours,  he  has  become  the 
true  successor  of  Leibnitz,  and  his  philosophy  will  no  doubt  attain 
that  universal  celebrity  which  was  attained  by  the  monadology  and 
the  system  of  pre-established  harmony. 

The  age  in  which  Lotze  lived  and  wrote  in  Germany  was  not 
one  peculiarly  fitted  to  appreciate  the  position  he  took  up.  Fre 
quently  misunderstood,  yet  rarely  criticized,  he  was  nevertheless 
greatly  admired,  listened  to  by  devoted  hearers,  and  read  by  an 
increasing  circle.  But  no  watchword  of  easy  currency,  no  ready 
Shibboleth,  attracts  or  helps  to  combine  this  increasing  circle  to 
the  unity  of  a  philosophical  school.  The  real  meaning  of  Lotze's 
teaching  is  reached  only  by  patient  study,  and  those  who  in  a  larger 
or  narrower  sense  call  themselves  his  followers  will  probably  feel 
themselves  indebted  to  him  more  for  the  general  direction  he  has 
given  to  their  thoughts,  for  the  tone  he  has  imparted  to  their 
inner  life,  for  the  seriousness  with  which  he  has  taught  them  to 
consider  even  small  affairs  and  practical  duties,  and  for  the  inde 
structible  confidence  with  which  his  philosophy  permits  them  to 
disregard  the  materialism  of  science,  the  scepticism  of  shallow 
culture,  the  disquieting  results  of  philosophical  and  historical 
criticism.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  present  phase  of  English 
thought  will  more  easily  assimilate  the  valuable  elements  of  Lotze's 
philosophy,  as  indeed  fragments  and  beginnings  of  a  similar  view 
exist  already  in  English  literature.  Wherever  his  writings  are 
widely  read  and  appreciated,  it  will  be  on  account  of  the  great 
moral  influence  which  his  philosophy  exerts  in  common  with 
some  systems  of  the  past,  but  almost  alone  among  the  systems  of 
the  day.  (J.  T.  M.) 

LOUD  UN,  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Vienne,  France,  stands  on  an  eminence  of  320 
feet,  overlooking  a  fertile  plain,  45  miles  (by  rail)  south 
west  from  Tours.  It  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls, 
of  which  only  two  towers  and  a  single  gateway  now 
remain.  Of  the  old  castle  which  was  destroyed  under 
Richelieu,  and  of  which  the  site  is  now  turned  into  a  public 


promenade,  a  fine  old  rectangular  donjon  of  the  12th 
century  has  been  preserved ;  at  its  base  traces  of  Roman 
constructions  have  been  found,  with  fragments  of  porphyry 
pavement,  mosaics,  and  mural  paintings.  The  Carmelite 
convent,  now  occupied  by  the  Brethren  of  Christian 
Doctrine,  was  the  scene  of  the  trial  of  Urban  Grandier, 
who  was  burnt  alive  for  witchcraft  in  1634  (see  Bayle's 
Dictionnaire) ;  the  old  Byzantine  church  of  Sainte  Croix, 
of  which  he  was  cure,  is  now  used  as  a  market.  There  are 
several  curious  old  houses  in  the  town.  Lace  making  and 
candle  making  are  the  chief  industries,  and  there  is  a  con 
siderable  trade  in  grain  and  flour.  Before  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  the  inhabitants  numbered,  it  is  &aid, 
more  than  12,000  ;  in  1876  the  population  was  4522. 

LOUGHBOROUGH,  the  second  town  in  Leicestershire, 
England,  on  the  Midland  Railway,  1 1  miles  from  Leicester 
and  14  from  Nottingham.  In  1881  its  three  parishes  had 
a  population  of  14,733.  A.  large  tract  of  meadow  land  lies 
between  the  town  and  the  river  Soar,  which  is  connected 
with  the  town  by  two  canals, — the  Loughborough  canal, 
formed  in  1776,  and  the  Leicester  canal,  opened  in  1791. 
On  the  Charnwood  Forest  side  of  the  town  there  were  once 
extensive  parks.  The  open  fields  in  the  lordship  were 
enclosed  in  1762.  The  town  has  an  excellent  market-place, 
and  is  in  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district.  Its  malt 
was  once  of  special  note.  The  old  parish  church  of  All 
Saints  stands  on  rising  ground,  and  is  a  conspicuous  object 
for  many  miles  round  ;  the  church  itself  (restored  in  1862) 
is  of  the  Decorated  style,  and  dates  from  the  14th  century  ; 
the  tower  is  Perpendicular.  Emmanuel  church  was  com 
pleted  in  1837,  and  Holy  Trinity  in  1878.  The  Roman 
Catholic  chapel  was  built  in  1833,  and  the  extensive  Early 
English  convent,  since  enlarged,  in  1850.  The  town-hall 
and  corn  exchange,  in  the  market-place,  were  erected  in 
1 855,  and  the  cenietery  and  its  elegant  church  date  from 
1857.  The  grammar  school  is  a  Tudor  structure,  standing 
in  some  15  acres  of  ornamental  grounds  and  walks  ;  it  owes 
its  origin  to  Thomas  Burton's  charity,  in  1495.  The  pre 
sent  buildings  were  erected  in  1852,  and  the  new  scheme 
was  devised  under  the  Grammar  School  Act  of  3  &  4  Viet. 
The  girls'  grammar  school,  in  the  Early  English  style,  was 
erected  in  1879.  The  other  public  buildings  comprise  a 
dispensary  and  infirmary  (built  at  the  cost  of  Mr  and  Miss 
Herrick  in  1862),  local  board  offices,  police  station,  schools, 
and  nonconformist  chapels.  There  are  several  large  hosiery 
factories.  Lace  was  a  staple  trade  until  1816  (see  HEATH- 
COAT).  Bell-founding  was  introduced  in  1840,  and  Messrs 
Taylor  cast  here  in  1881  the  great  bell  for  St  Paul's, 
London  (17^-  tons).  Iron-foundries,  dye-works,  and  horti 
cultural  glass-works  also  provide  employment. 

The  town  is  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Lucteburne  in  Domes 
day  Book.  William  the  Conqueror  gave  the  town  and  manor  to 
Hugh  Lupus,  from  whom  they  passed  to  the  more  famous 
Despensers.  They  were  held  by  the  Beaumonts  from  1326  to  1464, 
when  they  passed  into  the  Hastings  family,  returning  to  them,  after 
several  changes  of  ownership,  in  1554.  Lord  Moira  sold  the  manor 
in  1818,  and  the  major  part  of  the  manorial  rights  have  now  been 
purchased  by  the  local  board.  The  title  of  Baron  Hastings 
of  Loughborough  was  given  to  Sir  Edward  Hastings  in  1558,  and 
to  Colonel  Henry  Hastings  in  1643.  Alexander  Wedderburn,  when 
made  lord  chancellor,  assumed  the  title  of  Lord  Loughborough,  in 
1780.1  John  Cleaveland,  the  royalist  poet,  was  born  here  in  1613  ; 
John  Howe,  the  Puritan  divine,  in  1630  ;  and  Richard  Pulteney, 
the  botanist,  in  1730. 

See  Thomas  Pochin's  Historical  Description,  1770  (vol.  viii.  of  SMiotheca  Topo- 
graphica  Britannica) ;  Potter's  Walts  Round  Lovghborough ;  Wood's  Plan  of 
Lowjhlorough,  1857  ;  W.  G.  Dimock  Fletcher's  Parish  Registers,  1873,  Rectors  of 
Loughborough,  and  Historical  Handbook,  1881. 

LOUIS  L,  Roman  emperor  (called  "  der  Fromme,"  also 
"  le  Debonnaire  "),  was  born  in  778.  He  succeeded  his 
father  Charlemagne  in  814,  having  in  the  previous  year 

1  The  present  courtesy  title  borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  earl  of 
Rosslynwas  taken  from  Loughborough  in  Surrey,  in  1795. 


16 


LOUIS 


been  declared  co-regent.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  be 
excited  higb  anticipations  by  the  earnestness  with  which 
lie  attacked  the  abuses  that  had  accumulated  during  the 
later  years  of  Charlemagne's  sovereignty.  The  licentious 
ness  which  prevailed  at  court  he  sternly  suppressed  ;  he 
punished  counts  who  were  proved  to  have  misused  their 
authority ;  and  he  sought  to  reform  the  manners  both  of 
the  secular  and  of  the  regular  clergy.  The  Saxons  and 
the  Frisians,  who,  although  conquered,  had  never  cordially 
accepted  Frankish  rule,  were  conciliated  by  mild  and 
generous  treatment.  A  period  of  trouble  and  confusion, 
however,  was  opened  in  817,  when  Louis,  anxious  to 
establish  the  order  of  succession,  declared  his  eldest  son 
Lothair  his  successor,  and  made  him  co-regent,  granting 
him  Austrasia  with  the  greater  part  of  Germany.  The 
younger  sons  of  Louis,  Pippin  and  Louis,  received,  the 
former  Aquitania,  the  latter  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  Carinthia, 
and  the  subject  Slavonic  and  Avar  territories.  This 
arrangement  was  resented  by  Bernard,  king  of  Italy,  the 
emperor's  nephew,  who  forthwith  rebelled.  He  was  soon 
captured,  and  condemned  to  the  loss  of  his  sight,  while  his 
kingdom  was  transferred  to  Lothair.  After  the  death  of 
Bernard,  the  emperor,  who  was  a  man  of  a  gentle  and 
sensitive  temper,  bitterly  repented  the  harsh  punishment 
which  he  had  sanctioned,  and,  being  further  depressed  by 
the  death  of  his  first  wife,  he  proposed  to  resign  the  crown 
and  retire  to  a  monastery.  He  was  induced  to  abandon 
this  intention,  and  (in  819)  to  marry  Judith,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  Count  Welf  of  Bavaria.  In  829  he  made  a 
new  division  of  the  empire  in  favour  of  Charles  (afterwards 
Charles  the  Bald),  his  son  by  his  second  wife.  The  three 
brothers,  deeply  dissatisfied,  combined  to  declare  war 
against  him,  and  at  Compiegne  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
The  empress  Judith  was  condemned  to  the  cloister  for 
alleged  infidelity  to  her  husband,  and  Louis  was  virtually 
deposed.  Pippin  and  the  younger  Louis,  suspecting  that 
Lothair  meant  to  usurp  exclusive  authority,  changed  their 
policy,  and  at  a  diet  in  Nimeguen  the  emperor  was 
restored.  Soon  afterwards  he  provoked  fresh  disturbance 
by  granting  Aquitania,  the  territory  of  Pippin,  to  Charles, 
and  in  833  the  army  of  the  three  brothers  confronted  that 
of  their  father  near  Colmar.  When  Louis  was  negotiating 
with  Pope  Gregory  IV.,  who  had  crossed  the  Alps  in  the 
hope  of  restoring  peace,  his  troops  were  persuaded  to  desert 
him,  and  on  the  Liigenfeld  ("  the  field  of  lies  ")  he  was 
obliged  to  surrender  to  his  sons.  The  empress  was  sent  to 
Italy,  her  son  to  the  monastery  of  Priim,  and  at  Soissons 
Louis  not  only  abdicated,  but  made  public  confession  of 
his  sins,  a  long  list  of  which  he  read  aloud.  Again  the 
arrogance  of  Lothair  awoke  the  distrust  of  his  brothers, 
and  they  succeeded  in  reasserting  the  rights  of  the  emperor, 
whose  sufferings  had  excited  general  sympathy.  He  went 
through  the  ceremony  of  coronation  a  second  time,  and 
Lothair  found  it  necessary  to  confine  himself  to  Italy. 
After  the  death  of  Pippin  in  838  Louis  proposed  a  scheme 
by  which  the  whole  empire,  with  the  exception  of  Bavaria, 
would  have  been  divided  between  Charles  and  Lothair,  to 
whom  the  empress  had  been  reconciled.  The  younger  Louis 
prepared  to  oppose  this  injustice,  and  he  was  supported 
by  the  people  of  Aquitania  in  the  interest  of  Pippin's  sons. 
A  diet  was  summoned  at  Worms  to  settle  the  dispute,  but 
before  it  met  the  emperor  died  on  an  island  in  the  Rhino 
near  Mainz,  on  the  20th  of  June  840.  He  had  capacities 
which  might  have  made  him  a  great  churchman,  but  as  a 
secular  ruler  he  lacked  prudence  and  vigour,  and  his  mis 
management  prepared  the  way  for  the  destruction  of  the 
empire  established  by  his  father.  His  son  Lothair  I.  suc 
ceeded  to  the  imperial  title. 

See  Funck,  Ludvig  clcr  Frommc,  1832  ;  and  Simson,  J/Jirliichcr 
ifcs  Frdnkischcn  Rcichcs  miter  Ludwig  dcm  Frommcn,  1874-76. 


LOUIS  II.,  Roman  emperor,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  822  and  crowned  king,  of  Lombardy  in 
844.  From  849  he  shared  the  imperial  title  with  bis 
father,  Lothair  I.,  being  crowned  at  Rome  by  Leo  IV.  in 
850.  He  succeeded  to  the  undivided  but  almost  entirely 
nominal  dignity  in  855.  On  the  death  of  his  childless 
brother,  Lothair  of  Lorraine,  in  869,  the  inheritance  was 
seized  and  shared  by  his  uncles  Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis 
the  German  ;  the  pope,  however,  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  emperor,  crowning  him  king  of  Lorraine  in  872. 
Louis  II.  died  in  875,  and  the  imperial  crown  was  forth 
with  bestowed  on  Charles  the  Bald. 

LOUIS  III.,  Roman  emperor,  surnamed  "The  Blind," 
was  the  son  of  Boso,  king  of  Provence,  and,  through  his 
mother,  grandson  of  the  emperor  Louis  II.  He  was  born 
about  880,  called  to  the  throne  of  Provence  in  890,  and 
crowned  emperor  in  succession  to  Berengar  I.  at  Rome  in 
901.  In  905,  while  residing  at  Verona,  he  was  surprised 
by  his  discrowned  rival,  blinded,  and  ultimately  sent  back 
to  Provence,  where  he  lived  in  inactivity  and  comparative 
obscurity  until  929. 

LOUIS  THE  CHILD,  though  he  never  actually  received 
the  imperial  crown,  is  usually  reckoned  as  the  emperor 
Louis  III.  or  Louis  IV.  He  was  the  son  of  the  emperor 
Arnulf,  was  born  in  893,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
East  Francia  or  Germany  in  900,  when  he  was  six  years  of 
age.  During  his  brief  reign  Germany  was  desolated  by 
the  Hungarians,  who  invaded  the  country  year  after  year, 
defeating  every  force  that  ventured  to  oppose  them.  At 
the  same  time  the  kingdom  was  weakened  by  internal  strife. 
The  result  of  the  prevailing  anarchy  was  that  the  imperial 
constitution  established  by  Charlemagne  broke  down,  and 
Germany  was  gradually  divided  into  several  great  duchies, 
the  rulers  of  which,  while  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of 
the  king,  sought  to  become  virtually  independent.  Louis, 
the  last  of  the  Carolingian  face  in  Germany,  died  in  911. 

LOUIS  IV.  (or  V.),  "the  Bavarian,"  German  king  and 
Roman  emperor,  was  born  in  1286.  He  was  the  son  of 
the  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  in  1314,  after  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Henry  VII.,  was  elected  to  the  throne  by  five  of 
the  electors,  the  others  giving  their  votes  for  Frederick, 
duke  of  Austria.  This  double  election  led  to  a  civil  war, 
in  which  Frederick  was  supported  by  the  church  and  by 
many  nobles,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  cities  rallied 
round  Louis.  In  1322  Louis  gained  the  battle  of  Miihhlorf, 
taking  Frederick  prisoner;  but  the  war  still  went  on.  Pope 
John  XXII.  excommunicated  Louis  in  1324  ;  whereupon, 
wishing  to  bring  the  conflict  to  an  end,  Louis  offered  to 
liberate  Frederick  on  condition  that  he  would  withdraw 
his  claim  to  the  throne,  and  restore  the  cities  and  imperial 
lands  seized  by  his  party  in  Swabia.  Frederick,  finding 
that  the  obstinacy  of  his  brother,  Duke  Leopold,  would 
render  it  impossible  to  fulfil  these  terms,  returned  to  cap 
tivity ;  and  Louis  was  so  touched  by  his  magnanimity  that 
he  proposed  that  they  should  share  the  responsibilities  of 
government.  The  plan  was  tried  but  did  not  succeed, 
and  was  virtually  abandoned  before  Frederick's  death  in 
1330.  In  1327  Louis  had  gone  to  defend  his  rights  in 
Italy,  where  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  Pope  Nicholas  V., 
whom  he  supported  in  opposition  to  Pope  John  XXII. 
Returning  to  Germany  in  the  year  of  Frederick's  death, 
he  made  peace  with  the  house  of  Austria,  but  John  XXII. 
refused  to  be  conciliated,  and  his  successor  Benedict  XII., 
acting  in  part  under  the  influence  of  France,  continued 
the  struggle.  Irritated  by  the  revival  of  papal  pretensions 
which  no  longer  commanded  respect  in  Germany,  the  elec 
tors  met  at  Rherise,  and  on  the  15th  of  July  1338,  issued 
an  important  declaration  to  the  effect  that  the  emperor 
derived  his  right  to  the  German  and  imperial  crowns,  not 
from  the  pope,  but  from  the  electors  by  whom  he  was 


LOUIS 


17 


appointed.  As  the  representative  of  national  independence, 
Louis  might  have  made  himself  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  the  emperors,  but  he  excited  bitter  jealousies  by  his 
grasping  and  unscrupulous  disposition.  By  his  marriage 
with  Margaret,  the  sister  of  Count  William  of  Holland,  he 
secured  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Hainault ;  and 
he  obtained  the  mastery  of  Tyrol  by  separating  the  heiress, 
Margaret  Maultasch,  from  her  husband,  a  son  of  John, 
the  powerful  king  of  Bohemia,  and  making  her  the  wife  of 
his  own  son  Louis,  to  whom  (in  1322)  he  had  granted  the 
march  of  Brandenburg.  The  enemies  he  thus  created  were 
reinforced  by  Pope  Clement  VI.,  who  not  only  excom 
municated  him  again,  but  (in  1346)  persuaded  a  party  of 
the  electors  to  appoint  a  new  king.  Their  choice  fell  on 
Charles,  margrave  of  Moravia,  the  son  of  King  John  of 
Bohemia,  who  at  once  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
recover  Tyrol,  The  outbreak  of  a  new  civil  war  was 
prevented  by  the  sudden  death  of  Louis  at  a  bear  hunt 
near  Munich,  on  the  llth  of  October  1347.  The  conflict 
between  the  papacy  and  the  empire  was  practically  closed 
during  the  reign  of  Louis,  and  he  marked  an  epoch  by  his 
encouragement  of  the  cities  in  opposition  to  the  princes 
and  nobles. 

See  Marmert,  Kaiser  Ludwig  IV.,  1812  ;  Fr.  von  Weccli,  Kaiser 
Ludwig  der  Baier  und  Konig  Johann  von  Bohmcn,  1860  ;  and 
DiJbner,  Die  Ausciimndersctzung  zwischcn  Ludwig  IV.  dem  Baicr 
und  Friedrich  dcm  Schoncn  von  Ocstcrrcich,  1875. 

LOUIS  THE  GERMAN,  son  of  the  emperor  Louis  I.,  was 
born  in  804.  In  the  first  partition  of  the  empire  in  817 
he  received  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  Carinthia,  and  the  subject 
territories  on  his  eastern  frontier.  Displeased  by  later 
schemes  of  partition  in  favour  of  his  half-brother  Charles, 
he  associated  himself  with  his  brothers  Lothair  and  Pippin 
against  the  emperor,  and  he  was  in  the  field  in  defence  of 
his  rights  when  his  father  died.  After  the  emperor's  death 
in  840,  Louis  and  Charles  united  against  Lothair,  whom 
they  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Fontenay,  and  in  843  Louis 
received  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  the  whole  of  Germany  to 
the  east  of  the  Rhine,  with  Mainz,  Spires,  and  Worms  on 
the  left  bank.  He  was  a  wise  and  vigorous  ruler,  but  his 
forces  were  inadequate  to  protect  the  northern  part  of  his 
kingdom  against  the  Norsemen,  and  he  was  not  always 
successful  in  his  wars  with  Slavonic  tribes.  In  858  he 
invaded  West  Francia,  which  he  hoped  to  unite  with  East 
Francia,  his  own  state ;  but  Charles  the  Bald  proved  to  be 
stronger  than  Louis  had  supposed,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
retreat.  When  Lothair  of  Lorraine  died  in  8G9,  his  king 
dom  was  seized  by  Charles,  who  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  at  Metz  ;  but  in  the  following  year,  by  the  treaty 
of  Mersen,  the  eastern  half  of  the  country  was  ceded  to 
Louis.  Louis  expected  to  receive  the  imperial  crown  after 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Louis  II.  Charles,  however, 
outwitted  him,  and  Louis  was  attempting  to  avenge  this 
supposed  wrong  when  he  died  at  Frankfort  on  August  28, 
876.  East  Francia  and  West  Francia  were  again  united 
under  Charles  the  Fat;  but,  as  Louis  was  the  first  sovereign 
who  ruled  over  the  Germans,  and  over  no  other  Western 
people,  he  is  generally  considered  the  founder  of  the 
German  kingdom. 

See  Diimmler,  Gcsckichte  dcs  Ostfrankisclicn  Reichs,  1862. 

LOUIS  I.,  king  of  France,  surnamed  Le  Debonnaire  or 
the  Pious.  See  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  p.  533 ;  GERMANY,  vol. 
x.  p.  480  ;  and  Louis  I.,  emperor,  supra. 

LOUIS  II.,  surnamed  Le  Begue  or  the  Stammerer,  the 
sou  of  Charles  I.  ("  The  Bald  ")  by  Irmentrud  of  Orleans, 
and  the  grandson  of  Louis  the  Pious,  was  born  on 
November  1,  846.  On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother 
Charles,  the  second  son  of  Charles  the  Bald,  he  was  con 
secrated  king  of  Aquitania  in  867,  and  ten  years  afterwards 
he  succeeded  his  father,  being  crowned  by  Hincmar  of 


Piheims  under  the  title  of  "  king  of  the  French,  by  the 
mercy  of  God  and  the  election  of  the  people  "  (December 
8,  877).  In  the  following  year  (September  7)  he  availed 
himself  of  the  presence  of  Pope  John  VIII.  at  Troyes  to 
obtain  a  fresh  consecration.  He  died  at  Compi^gne,  after 
a  feeble  and  ineffectual  reign  of  eighteen  months,  on 
April  10,  879. 

LOUIS  III.,  son  of  the  preceding  by  Ansgarde,  daughter 
of  Count  Hardouin  of  Brittany,  was  born  about  the  year 
863,  and  in  879  was  designated  by  his  father  sole  heir  to 
the  French  throne.  It  was  decided  among  the  nobles, 
however,  that  the  inheritance  should  be  divided  between 
Louis  and  his  younger  brother  Carloman,  the  former 
receiving  Neustria,  or  all  France  north  of  the  Loire,  and 
the  latter  Aquitania  and  Burgundy.  On  the  Loire  and 
elsewhere  the  two  brothers  inflicted  several  defeats  on  the 
Northmen  (879-881) ;  but  in  882  Louis  succumbed  to  the 
fatigues  of  war,  leaving  his  inheritance  to  Carloman. 

LOUIS  IV.,  surnamed  D'Outremer  (Transmarinus),  son 
of  Charles  III.  ("The  Simple")  and  grandson  of  Louis  II., 
was  born  in  921.  In  consequence  of  the  disasters  which 
befell  his  father  in  922,  Louis  was  taken  by  his  mother 
Odgiva,  sister  of  Athelstan,  to  England,  where  his  boy 
hood  was  spent, — a  circumstance  to  which  he  owes  his 
surname.  On  the  death  of  Raoul  or  Rodolph  of  Burgundy, 
who  had  been  elected  king  in  place  of  Charles,  the  choice 
of  Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  and  the  other  nobles, 
fell  upon  Louis,  who  was  accordingly  brought  over  the 
Channel  and  consecrated  in  936.  His  de  facto  sovereignty, 
however,  was  confined  to  the  countship  of  Laon.  In  939 
he  became  involved  in  a  struggle  with  Otto  I.  ("The 
Great")  of  Germany  about  Lorraine,  which  had  transferred 
its  allegiance  to  him  ;  the  victory  remained  at  last  with 
tha  emperor,  who  married  his  sister  Gerberga  to  Louis. 
After  the  death  of  William  Longsword,  duke  of  Normandy, 
Louis  endeavoured  to  strengthen  his  influence  in  the  duchy 
by  obtaining  possession  of  the  person  of  Richard  the  infant 
heir,  but  a  series  of  intrigues  resulted  only  in  his  own 
captivity  at  Rouen  in  944,  from  which  he  was  not  released 
in  the  following  year  until  he  had  agreed  to  surrender 
Laon  to  his  powerful  vassal  Hugh  the  Great.  By  the 
interposition  of  Otto,  the  brother-in-law  of  Louis,  Hugh, 
who  for  some  years  had  effectually  resisted  both  the  carnal 
resources  of  the  empire  and  the  spiritual  weapons  of  the 
church,  was  at  last  persuaded  to  restore  Laon.  The  last 
years  of  this  reign  were  marked  by  repeated  Hungarian 
invasions  of  France.  Louis  died  in  954,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Lothaire. 

LOUIS  V.,  Le  Faineant,  son  of  Lothaire  and  grandson 
of  Louis  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Carolingian  dynasty,  was 
born  in  966,  succeeded  Lothaire  in  March  986,  and  died 
in  May  987.  He  was  succeeded  by  Hugh  Capet. 

LOUIS  VI. ,  surnamed  Le  Gros,  L'Eveille",  and  Le 
Batailleur,  the  son  of  Philip  I.  of  France  and  Bertha  of 
Holland,  was  born  about  1078,  was  associated  with  his 
father  in  the  government  in  1100,  and  succeeded  him  in 
1108.  For  some  account  of  his  character,  and  of  the 
events  of  his  reign,  see  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  pp.  538,  539.  He 
died  on  August  1,  1 137. 

LOUIS  VII.,  Le  Jeune  and  Le  Pieux,  eon  of  Louis  VI., 
was  born  in  1120,  and  was  associated  with  his  father  on 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Philip  in  1131,  being  crowned 
at  Rheims  on  October  25  by  Pope  Innocent  II.  He 
succeeded  to  the  undivided  sovereignty  in  1137,  the  news 
of  his  father's  death  reaching  him  as  he  was  engaged  at 
Poitiers  in  the  festivities  connected  with  his  unlucky 
marriage  to  Eleanor  of  Aquitania.  In  1141  he  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  assert  his  rights  as  duke  of 
Aquitania  over  the  countship  of  Toulouse,  and  in  1142  he 
fell  into  a  vehement  quarrel  with  Pope  Innocent  II.,  who 

XV.  —  3 


18 


LOUIS 


had  presumed  too  much  on  the  piety  of  the  well  brought- 
up  young  prince  by  appoiuting  a  nephew  of  his  own  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Bourges.  In  the  course  of  the  contest 
Louis,  who  had  been  excommunicated,  pursued  the  new 
archbishop  into  the  territory  of  the  count  of  Champagne, 
and  stormed  Vitry,  in  the  sack  of  which  the  cathedral  was 
burned,  causing  the  death  of  three  hundred  persons  who 
had  taken  refuge  within  its  walls  (1143).  Louis,  horror- 
struck,  made  peace  with  the  pope  and  his  secular  adversary, 
but  found  that  nothing  less  than  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land  would  suffice  to  expiate  his  offence.  The  capture  of 
Edessa  and  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  in  1144  led  to 
the  preaching  of  the  second  crusade  by  St  Bernard,  and  in 
1147  the  king,  leaving  the  regency  in  the  hands  of  the 
Abbd  Suger  and  Raoul,  count  of  Vermandois,  set  out  for 
the  East,  accompanied  by  his  queen,  a  large  company  of 
nobles,  and  twenty-four  thousand  men.  The  disastrous 
results  of  the  expedition,  personal,  domestic,  and  public, 
have  already  been  recorded  in  the  article  FRANCE  (vol. 
ix.  p.  540),  where  also  his  long  struggle  with  Henry  II. 
of  England,  which  terminated  only  in  1178,  is  briefly 
described.  In  1178  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of 
St  Thomas  of  Canterbury  on  behalf  of  his  eldest  son  Philip 
Augustus,  then  dangerously  ill,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  associated  him  with  himself  in  the  sovereignty.  Louis 
died  on  September  18,  1180. 

LOUIS  VIII.,  suruamed  Le  Lion,  born  on  September 
5,  1187,  was  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  whom  he  suc 
ceeded  in  July  1223.  In  1200  he  had  married  Blanche 
of  Castile,  the  granddaughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England, 
and  in  virtue  of  this  connexion  he  received  from  the 
English  barons  in  1216  an  offer  of  the  crown,  which 
he  accepted.  Landing  in  England  in  May,  he  achieved 
several  military  successes,  but  retired  early  in  1217  ;  later 
in  the  same  year  he  renewed  the  attempt  to  make  good  his 
claims,  but  finally  quitted  English  soil  in  September.  He 
next  took  charge  of  the  war  against  the  Albigenses  with 
varying  success ;  it  continued  after  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  and  ultimately  proved  fatal  to  him.  He  died,  most 
probably  of  pestilence,  shortly  after  the  capture  of  Avignon, 
at  Montpensier  in  Auvergne  on  November  8,  1226,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  IX. 

LOUIS  IX.,  SAINT  (1215-1270).  See  FRANCE,  vol. 
ix.  pp.  542,  543.  He  was  canonized  by  Boniface  VIII.  in 
1297,  and  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  on  August  25  or  26.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Philip  III. 

LOUIS  X.,  Le  Hutin,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  IV. 
(the  Fair)  and  Joan  of  Navarre,  and  was  born  in  1289. 
He  succeeded  his  mother  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  and 
countships  of  Champagne  and  Brie  in  1305.  Historians 
are  not  agreed  as  to  the  origin  of  the  surname  ("  The 
Quarreller  ")  by  which  he  is  known  in  France,  but  it  seems 
with  most  probability  to  commemorate  the  wild  and 
boisterous  character  of  his  youth.  He  succeeded  his 
fathsr  in  1314,  and  died,  after  a  short  and  unimportant 
reign  of  less  than  two  years,  in  June  1316.  lie  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Philip  V. 

LOUIS  XL,  son  of  Charles  VII.  and  Mary  of  Anjou, 
was  born  at  Bourges  on  July  3,  1423.  His  jealous, 
ambitious,  and  restless  character  early  manifested  itself  in 
the  attitude  of  opposition  he  assumed  to  his  father's  mistress 
Agnes  Sorel,  and  in  the  part  he  took  (1439)  as  leader  of 
the  "  Praguerie,"  as  the  league  formed  by  the  nobles 
against  the  introduction  of  a  standing  army  was  called. 
Though  pardoned  by  his  father  in  1440  after  the  failure  of 
the  attempt,  he  never  thenceforward  enjoyed  any  of  his 
confidence.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  years 
immediately  following  in  several  military  expeditions,  but 
finally  settled  (1446)  in  his  npanage  of  Dauphinc,  where 


he  acted  with  great  independence,  until  in  1456  Charles, 
irritated  by  the  intrigues  of  his  son,  intimated  his  intention 
of  himself  resuming  the  government  of  that  province.  Not 
waiting  the  arrival  of  the  army  which  had  been  sent  to 
take  possession,  Louis  fled  for  protection  to  his  uncle  the 
duke  of  Burgundy,  who  assigned  him  a  pension  and  a 
residence  at  Nieppe  near  Brussels.  The  death  of  Charles 
on  July  22, 1461,  permitted  his  return  to  France,  where  he 
was  crowned  at  Rheims  as  Louis  XL  in  the  following 
month.  For  the  leading  events  of  the  three  periods  of  his 
reign  the  reader  is  referred  to  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  pp.  552,  553. 
He  died  at  Plessis-les-Tours  on  August  30,  1483,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  VIII. 

LOUIS  XII.  was  born  at  Blois  in  1462.  His  father 
was  Charles,  duke  of  Orleans,  the  grandson  of  Charles  V. 
and  the  cousin  of  Charles  VII.,  who  spent  twenty-five  years 
of  captivity  in  England,  and  who  still  holds  an  honourable 
place  on  the  roll  of  French  poets.  Louis  himself  was  for 
three  years  (1487-90)  the  prisoner  of  his  second  cousin, 
Charles  VIII.,  in  the  castle  of  Bourges,  but  afterwards 
seconded  his  ambitious  schemes  faithfully  and  well,  and  on 
his  death  (1498)  succeeded  him,  taking  the  titles  of  king 
of  France,  Jerusalem,  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  duke  of 
Milan.  For  the  events  of  his  reign  see  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  pp. 
554,555.  He  died  on  January  1,  1515,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Francis  I. 

LOUIS  XIII.,  the  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  Mary  de'  Medici, 
was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  September  27,  1601,  and 
succeeded  his  father  on  May  14,  1610,  his  mother  mean 
while  availing  herself  of  the  confusion  caused  by  the 
assassination  to  seize  the  regency.  For  some  years  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  directed  by  the  council  of 
regency  in  which  the  Florentine  Concini,  created  Marquis 
d'Ancre  and  a  marshal  of  France,  was  the  most  prominent 
figure.  After  the  assassination  of  D'Ancre  in  1617, 
Marshal  Luynes,  the  favourite  of  the  weak  young  king, 
held  the  reins  of  power  for  about  four  years ;  his  death  of 
camp  fever  in  the  end  of  1621,  in  the  course  of  the 
Huguenot  campaign,  left  Louis  free  to  assert  his  own 
independence,  which  he  did  by  carrying  on  the  war  with 
some  vigour  until  its  termination  in  the  peace  of 
Montpellier  (1622).  In  1624  Richelieu  entered  the  council 
of  state,  and  guided  the  affairs  of  Louis  and  of  France  for 
the  next  eighteen  years  (see  FRANCE,  vol.  ix.  pp.  568-571). 
Louis,  who  died  at  St  Germain-en-Laye  on  May  14,  1643, 
was  married  at  the  age  of  fourteen  (December  1615)  to 
Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain  ;  but  his 
eldest  son,  who  succeeded  him  as  Louis  XIV.,  was  not  born 
until  twenty-three  years  afterwards. 

LOUIS  XIV.,  surnamed  Le  Grand,  the  elder  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  on  September 
16,  1638,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  in  his  fifth 
year,  was  declared  of  age  in  September  1651,  and  was 
crowned  on  June  7,  1654.  His  marriage  with  the  infanta 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  Spanish  Philip 
IV,  was  solemnized  at  St  Jean-de-Luz  on  June  9,  1660. 
On  the  death  of  Mazarin  in  1661  Louis  XIV.  began  his 
true  reign,  the  leading  events  of  which  will  be  found 
recorded  in  the  article  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  p.  574-584).  He 
died  at  Versailles  on  September  1,  1715.  Of  his  legitimate 
children  by  Maria  Theresa,  only  one,  Louis  the  Dauphin 
(1661-1711),  reached  manhood;  he  was  married  to  a 
Bavarian  princess  by  whom  he  had  three  sons — Louis  the 
Dauphin,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  was  the  father  of  Louis 
XV. ;  Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards  Philip  V.  of  Spain  ; 
and  Charles,  duke  of  Berri. 

LOUIS  XV,  great-grandson  and  successor  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Versailles  on  February  15,  1710,  was 
the  third  son  of  Louis,  duke  of  Burgundy.  His  father 
became  dauphin  in  1711,  and  died  in  1712,  and  he  him- 


L  O  U  —  L  O  U 


19 


self  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  on  September  1, 
1715.  His  majority  was  declared  in  February  1723,  and 
on  September  5,  1725  (his  cousin,  to  whom  he  had  been 
engaged  since  1721,  having  been  sent  back  to  Spain), 
his  marriage  to  Maria  Leczinski  of  Poland,  his  senior  by 
seven  years,  was  solemnized  at  Fontainebleau.  This  union 
continued  to  subsist  after  a  fashion  until  the  queen's 
death  in  1768;  but  the  successive  relations  of  the  king 
with  De  Chateauroux,  De  Pompadour,  and  Du  Barry  are 
elements  of  much  greater  interest  and  importance  to  the 
student  of  his  reign.  His  surname  of  "  Le  Bien-airne'  "  is 
said  to  date  from  August  1744,  when  he  was  seized  with 
a  dangerous  illness  at  Metz ;  the  people  of  Paris  rushed  in 
crowds  to  the  churches  to  pray  for  his  recovery,  nor  could 
they  sleep,  eat,  or  enjoy  any  amusement  until  the  "  well- 
beloved  king"  was  out  of  danger.  He  died  of  small -pox 
on  May  10,  1774,  having  been  predeceased  for  some  years 
by  his  only  son  Louis.  His  successor  was  his  grandson 
Louis  XVI.  For  his  reign  see  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  pp.  584- 
593). 

LOUIS  XVI.,  third  son  of  Louis  the  Dauphin,  and 
grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  at  Versailles  on  August 
23,  1754,  was  married  to  Marie  Antoinette,  archduchess 
of  Austria,  at  Versailles,  on  May  16,  1770,  succeeded  his 
grandfather  on  May  10,  1774,  and  was  beheaded  ou 
January  21,  1793.  See  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  pp.  593-604). 

LOUIS  XVII.,  titular  king  of  France,  the  third  son  of 
Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  was  born  at  Versailles 
on  March  27,  1785,  became  dauphin  in  June  1789,  was 
proclaimed  king  after  the  execution  of  his  father,  was 
recognized  as  such  by  the  Governments  of  England  and 
Russia,  but  died  in  captivity  in  the  Temple,  Paris,  June  8, 
1795. 

LOUIS  XVIIL,  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  the  fourth 
grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  and  was  born  at  Versailles  on 
November  17,  1755,  receiving  at  his  birth  the  title  of 
count  of  Provence.  During  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
revolutionary  struggle  he  showed  considerable  sympathy 
with  the  popular  party,  but  in  June  1791  he  found  it 
necessary  to  withdraw  to  Coblentz,  and  subsequently  lie 
took  some  part  in  the  operations  of  the  army  of  Conde.  He 
was  at  Hamm  in  Westphalia  when  tidings  of  his  brother's 
murder  arrived,  and  lost  no  time  in  proclaiming  the 
succession  of  his  nephew  Louis  XVI L,  himself  being 
recognized  as  regent.  In  June  1795  he  succeeded  to  the 
regal  title  ;  after  several  years  of  involuntary  wandering  he 
found  an  asylum  in  England  from  October  1807  till  April 
1814,  when  he  re-entered  France.  He  only  once  left  it 
again,  during  the  "  Hundred  Days  "  (March  to  June  1815); 
his  death  took  place  at  Paris  on  September  18,  1824.  For 
his  reign,  see  FRANCE  (vol.  ix.  pp.  617-619).  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  X. 

LOUIS-PHILIPPE,  king  of  the  French,  was  born  at 
the  Palais  Pioyal,  Paris,  on  October  6,  1773.  His  father 
was  Louis-Philippe-Joseph,  duke  of  Orleans,  a  descendant 
of  the  younger  brother  of  Louis  XLV,,  and  by  his  mother 
he  derived  his  origin  from  the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  the 
legitimized  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  Montespan. 
At  his  birth  he  received  the  title  of  duke  of  Valois ;  and 
after  1785,  when  his  father  succeeded  to  the  Orleans  title, 
he  himself  bore  that  of  duke  of  Chartres.  In  1781  Madame 
de  Genlis  was  appointed  his  "gouverneur."  From  1789 
onwards  he  manifested  sincere  sympathy  with  the  new 
ideas  then  gaining  currency,  and  in  June  1791  he  joined 
at  Vendome  the  regiment  of  dragoons  of  which  he  had  been 
colonel  since  1785.  In  1792  he  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Valmy  and  Jemmapes,  holding  high  military  rank  under 
Kellermann  and  Dumouriez ;  in  the  following  year  he  was 
present  at  the  bombardment  of  Venloo  and  of  Maestricht, 
and  showed  remarkable  courage  at  Neerwinden.  Proscribed 


along  with  Dumouriez,  he  entered  upon  a  period  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  exile  from  France,  spent  partly  in  Switzerland 
and  other  European  countries,  partly  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  Spanish  American  colonies.  By  the  execution 
of  his  father  he  became  duke  of  Orleans  in  1793;  and  he 
was  married  to  Marie  Amelie,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  IV. 
of  Naples,  at  Palermo,  on  November  25,  1809.  In  April 
1814  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  his  old  military  rank  and 
the  property  of  his  father  were  restored  to  him ;  the 
"Hundred  Days"  in  1815  condemned  him  to  a  renewed 
but  much  briefer  exile;  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIIL 
he  was  regarded  with  some  jealousy  by  the  court  on  account 
of  his  liberal  opinions,  but  enjoyed  greater  favour  under 
Charles  X.;  immediately  after  the  three  days  of  July  1830 
he  was  called  to  exercise  the  functions  of  "lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom,"  and  on  August  9  he  accepted  the 
title  of  king  of  the  French.  For  his  reign  see  FRANCE 
(vol.  ix.  p.  620-622).  Escaping  in  disguise  from  Paris  at 
the  Revolution  of  1848,  he  on  March  3  reached  England, 
where  Claremont  was  his  home  until  his  death  on  August 
26,  1850. 

LOUISA  (1776-1810),  queen  of  Prussia,  was  born 
March  10,  1776,  in  Hanover,  where  her  father,  Duke 
Charles  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  was  commandant.  After 
the  death  of  her  mother,  who  was  by  birth  a  princess  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  she  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a  Fraulein 
von  Wolzogen,  and  afterwards  to  that  of  her  grandmother, 
the  landgravine  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  During  the  period 
of  the  revolutionary  wars,  she  lived  for  some  time  with 
her  sister  Charlotte,  the  wife  of  Duke  Frederick  of  Saxe- 
Hildburghausen.  In  1793  she  met  at  Frankfort  the  crown 
prince  of  Prussia,  afterwards  King  Frederick  William  III., 
who  was  so  fascinated  by  her  beauty,  and  by  the  nobleness 
of  her  character,  that  he  asked  her  to  become  his  wife. 
On  April  24  of  th&  same  year  they  were  betrothed,  and  on 
the  24th  of  December  they  were  married.  As  queen  of 
Prussia  she  commanded  universal  respect  and  affection, 
and  nothing  in  Prussian  history  is  more  pathetic  than  the 
patience  and  dignity  with  which  she  bore  the  sufferings 
inflicted  on  her  and  her  family  during  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  France.  After  the  battle  of  Jena  she  went 
with  her  husband  to  Konigsberg,  and  when  the  battles  of 
Eylau  and  Friedland  had  placed  Prussia  absolutely  at  the 
rnercy  of  France,  she  made  a  personal  appeal  to  Napoleon 
at  his  headquarters  in  Tilsit,  but  without  success.  Earl;, 
in  1808  she  accompanied  the  king  from  Memel  to  Konigs 
berg,  whence,  towards  the  end  of  the  year,  she  visited 
St  Petersburg,  returning  to  Berlin  on  the  23d  of  December 
1809.  During  the  war  Napoleon,  with  incredible  bru 
tality,  attempted  to  destroy  the  queen's  reputation,  but  the 
only  effect  of  his  charges  in  Prussia  was  to  make  her  more 
deeply  beloved.  On  the  19th  of  July  1810  she  died  in 
her  husband's  arms,  while  visiting  her  father  in  Strelitz. 
No  other  queen  in  modern  times  ha;;  been  more  sincerely 
mourned.  She  was  buried  in  the  garden  of  the  palace  at 
Charlottenburg,  where  a  beautiful  mausoleum,  containing  a 
fine  recumbent  statue  by  Ilauch,  was  built  over  her  grave. 
In  1840  her  husband  was  buried  by  her  side.  The  Louisa 
Foundation  (Luisenstift)  for  the  education  of  girls  was 
established  in  her  honour,  and  in  1814  Frederick  William 
III.  instituted  the  Order  of  Louisa  (Luisenorden).  On 
the  10th  of  March  1876  the  Prussian  people  celebrated 
the  hundredth  anniversary  of  her  birth,  and  it  was  then 
decided  to.erect  a  statue  of  Queen  Louisa  in  the  Thiergarten 
at  Berlin. 

See  Adami,  Luise,  Konigin  von  Prcusscn,  7th  ed.,  1875  ;  Engel, 
Konigin  Luise,  1876  ;  Kluckhohn,  Luise,  Konigin  von  Preussen, 
1876  ;  Mommsen  and  Treitschke,  Konigin  Luise,  1876  ;  in 
English,  Hudson,  Life  and  Times  of  Louisa,  Queen  of  Prussia, 
1874. 


20 


LOUISIANA 


LOUISIANA 

Copyright,  1882,  by  Henry  Gannett. 


Pluto  I.  T~  OUISIANA,  one  of  the  Southern  States  of  the  American 
I  1  Union,  situated  on  the  lower  course  and  debouche- 
ment  of  the  Mississippi  river.  It  is  bounded  S.  by  the 
Bound-  Gulf  of  Mexico,  W.  by  Texas,  N.  by  Arkansas,  and  E.  by 
aries  and  .Mississippi  Its  western  boundary  is  a  line  through  the 
extent,  n^dle  Of  Sabine  lake  and  river,  as  far  north  as  the  32d 
parallel:,  whence  it  follows  the  meridian  of  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  river  with  that  parallel.  The  northern 
boundary  is  the  parallel  of  33°.  The  eastern  boundary 
is  the  mid-channel  of  the  Mississippi  river,  as  far  south  as 
the  31st  parallel,  whence  it  follows  that  parallel  eastward 
to  the  middle  of  Pearl  river,  and  passes  down  that  stream 
to  the  Gulf.  The  area  of  the  State,  according  to  a  late  de 
termination  made  by  the  Census  Bureau,  is  48,720  square 
miles,  of  which  1060  consist  of  land-locked  bays,  1700  of 
inland  lakes,  and  540  of  river  surface,  leaving  45,420 
square  miles  as  the  total  land  area  of  the  State. 
Surface.  The  average  elevation  of  the  State  is  only  75  feet,  and 
no  part  of  it  reaches  500  feet  above  sea-level.  The  most 
elevated  portion  is  near  its  northern  border.  The  surface 
is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts — the  upland,  and  the 
alluvial  and  coast  swamp  regions.  Each  of  the  larger 
streams,  as  well  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  smaller  ones, 
is  accompanied  by  a  belt  of  bottom  land,  of  greater  or  less 
width,  lying  low  as  regards  the  stream,  and  liable  to  over 
flow  at  times  of  high  water.  These  bottom  lands  form 
collectively  what  is  known  as  the  alluvial  region.  It 
extends  in  a  broad  belt  down  the  Mississippi,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and'  up  the 
Ouachita  and  its  branches  and  the  Red  River,  to  and  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  State.  Its  breadth  along  the  Mississippi 
within  this  State  ranges  from  10  to  50  or  60  miles,  and 
that  along  the  Red  River  and  Ouachita  has  an  average 
breadth  of  10  miles.  Through  its  great  flood-plain  the 
Mississippi  river  winds  upon  the  summit  of  a  ridge  formed 
by  its  own  deposits.  In  each  direction  the  country  falls 
away  in  a  succession  of  minor  undulations,  the  summits  of 
the  ridges  being  occupied  by  the  streams  and  bayous. 
Nearly  all  of  this  vast  flood-plain  lies  below  the  level  of 
high  water  in  the  Mississippi,  and,  were  it  not  for  the 
protection  afforded  by  the  levees,  with  which  most  of  the 
course  of  the  stream  is  lined,  every  considerable  rise  of  its 
waters  would  inundate  vast  areas  of  fertile  and  cultivated 
land. 

Stretching  along  the  coast,  and  extending  inland  to  a 
varying  distance,  ranging  from  20  to  50  or  even  60  miles, 
is  a  low,  swampy  region,  the  surface  of  which  is  diversified 
only  by  the  slight  ridges  along  the  streams  and  bayous 
•which  traverse  it,  by  occasional  patches  of  slightly  elevated 
prairie,  and  by  live  oak  ridgeS.  It  is  in  and  along  the 
borders  of  this  coast  swamp  region  that  most  of  the  sugar 
cane  and  rice  produced  in  the  State  are  grown. 

The  low  regions  of  Louisiana,  including  the  alluvial 
lands  and  the  coast  swamps,  comprise  about  20,100  square 
miles,  or  nearly  one-half  the  area  of  the  State.  The 
remainder  consists  of  uplands  of  prairie  and  forest.  The 
borders  of  these  uplands  are  generally  defined  by  lines  of 
bluffs  of  no  great  height. 

Kivers.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  which  flows 
nearly  600  miles  through  and  along  the  border  of  the  State, 
the  Red  River,  the  Ouachita  or  Washita,  Sabine,  and  Pearl, 
all  which,  excepting  the  last,  are  navigable  at  all  stages  of 
the  water.  Besides  those  streams  which  may  properly  be 
called  rivers,  the  State  is  intersected  by  "  bayous,"  several 
of  which  are  of  great  importance  both  for  navigation  and 
for  drainage.  They  may  be  characterized  as  secondary 
outlets  of  the  rivers.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned 


Achafalaya  Bayou,  Bayou  la  Fourche,  and  Bayou  Boeuf. 
The  signification  of  the  name  has,  however,  been  extended, 
so  that  many  rivers  in  this  region,  particularly  if  they  have 
sluggish  courses,  are  known  as  bayous.  The  alluvial 
portion  of  the  State,  particularly  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Red  River,  is  a  perfect  network  of  these  bayous,  which 
serve,  in  time  of  flood,  to  carry  off  the  invading  surplus 
waters. 

The  lakes  of  the  State  are  mainly  comprised  in  three  ] 
classes.  First  come  the  lagoons  of  the  coast,  many  of  which 
are  merely  land-locked  bays,  whose  waters  are  salt,  and 
which  rise  and  fall  with  the  tides.  Of  this  class  are  Pont- 
chartrain,  Borgne,  Maurepas,  and  Sabine,  and  indeed  all  or 
nearly  all  those  situated  in  the  region  of  the  coast  swamps. 
These  are  simply  parts  of  the  sea  which  have  escaped  the 
filling-in  process  carried  on  by  the  great  river  and  the  lesser 
streams.  A  second  class,  large  in  numbers  but  small  in 
area,  is  the  result  of  "  cut-offs  "  and  other  changes  of 
channel  in  the  Mississippi,  and,  to  a  small  extent,  in  the 
Red  River.  The  part  of  the  river  left  by  this  change  of 
channel  becomes  gradually  isolated  from  the  stream  by  the 
deposit  of  silt  along  the  borders  of  the  latter,  thus  chang 
ing  what  were  formerly  windings  of  the  river  into  crescent- 
shaped  lakes.  A  third  class  may  be  mentioned,  namely, 
those  upon  Red  River  and  its  branches  which  are  caused 
by  the  partial  stoppage  of  the  water  by  the  "  raft  "  above 
Shreveport.  These  are,  of  course,  much  larger  at  flood 
season  than  at  other  times,  and,  it  may  be  added,  have 
been  much  reduced  in  size  by  the  cutting  of  a  channel 
through  the  raft. 

The  climate  of  the  State  is  semi-tropical ;  the  mean  < 
annual  temperature  ranges  from  60°  to  75°,  changing  ap 
proximately  with  the  latitude.  The  mean  temperatir-e 
of  the  hottest  month  is  about  85°,  while  that  of  the  coldest 
month  ranges  in  different  parts  of  the  State  from  45°  to 
60°.  The  temperature  rarely,  if  ever,  falls  below  0°  Fahr., 
while  the  heats  of  summer  reach  105°  in  some  parts.  The 
rainfall  is  very  heavy  along  the  coast,  exceeding  60  inches 
annually,  but  decreases  inland,  and  is  not  more  than  50 
inches  in  the  northern  districts. 

This  large  amount  of  moisture,  together  with  the  high  " 
temperature  and  the  fertile  soil,  suffices  to  cover  the  greater  * 
part  of  the  State,  and  particularly  the  alluvial  regions  and 
the  coast  swamps,  with  the  most  luxuriant  sub-tropical 
vegetation,  both  arborescent  and  herbaceous.  Much  of  the 
latter  region  is  covered  with  lofty  cypress  trees,  from 
which  hang  festoons  of  Spanish  moss.  The  most  common 
species  of  the  alluvial  regions  and  the  drier  portions  of 
the  coast  swamps  are  live  and  other  species  of  oaks,  sweet 
gum,  magnolia,  the  tulip  tree,  black  walnut,  pine,  and 
cedar.  Along  the  streams  in  the  alluvial  region  are  found 
willows,  cotton-woods,  basket  oaks,  and  other  species  of 
similar  habitat.  For  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  its  flowers 
Louisiana  is  justly  celebrated.  Its  bottom  lands  and  its 
upland  prairies  are  decked  with  them  in  tropical  profusion. 
Prominent  among  them  in  abundance  are  roses,  magnolias, 
jasmines,  camellias,  and  oleanders.  Most  fruits  common 
to  a  semi-tropical  region  are  to  be  found  here,  either  native 
or  cultivated,  such  as  oranges,  olives,  figs,  peaches,  and 
plums. 

The  forests  cover  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  area  ] 
of  the  State,  and  are  destined  in  the  future  to  form  an 
important  element  of  its  wealth,  although  up  to  the  present 
time  the  lumber  interest  has  not  been  very  extensively  de 
veloped.  The  most  valuable  timber  is  that  of  the  long- 
leaved  pine  (Finns  mistralis)  and  the  short  leaved  pine 
(Pinus  mitis).  These  are  mainly  confined  to  the  upland 
regions,  being  nowhere  found  in  the  alluvial  or  coast  sec 
tions.  The  north-western  part  of  the  State  is  occupied  by 
the  short-leaved  pine,  while  the  long-leaved  pine  is  found 


PLATE  I. 


LOUISIANA 


VOL.  XV 


92  Longitude         "West  91  from          Grtenwuli  80 


LonptuJe         West 


ENCYCLOP-CD.tA  BRITANNICA,  N  I  NTH  EDITION. 


21 


mainly  in  large  masses  north  and  south  of  the  Red  River, 
and  also  in  the  east  of  the  State.1 

The  native  fauna  of  the  State  resembles  in  its  general 
features  that  of  the  other  Gulf  States.  Large  quadrupeds 
are  comparatively  rarely  met  with,  although  occasionally 
there  are  seen  black  bears  and  wolves,  and  in  the  swamps 
an  occasional  panther.  Smaller  quadrupeds,  such  as 
raccoons,  squirrels,  wild  cats,  opossums,  &c.,  are  still 
common.  Every  bayou  contains  alligators  ;  and  reptiles  of 
various  species,  such  as  turtles,  lizards,  horned  toads,  rattle 
snakes,  and  moccabin  snakes,  are  abundant.  The  avifauna 
of  the  State  is  varied  and  abundant,  comprising  eagles, 
vultures,  hawks,  owls,  pelicans,  cranes,  turkeys,  geese,  part 
ridges,  ducks,  «tc.,  besides  numberless  smaller  species,  many 
of  these,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world  in  the  same  latitude, 
being  brilliant  of  plumage,  but  harsh  of  voice. 

The  surface  geology  in  its  general  outlines  is  very  simple. 
The  whole  alluvial  region  and  the  coast  swamps,  besides  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  prairie  and  pine  flats  bordering 
upon  the  lowlands,  are  of  the  most  recent  or  Quarternary 
formations,  while  the  remainder  of  the  State,  comprised 
mainly  in  the  region  west  of  the  Ouachita  and  Calcasieu 
rivers,  is  Tertiary,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  very  small 
islands  of  the  Cretaceous  formation  in  the  north-western 
part  of  the  State. 

In  the  Tertiary  region  are  found  small  quantities  of  iron 
ore,  and  an  indifferent  brown  coal.  But  the  only  important 
mineral  product  of  the  State  is  rock  salt  ;  the  deposit  upon 
Petite  Anse  Island,  in  the  coast  swamp  region,  has  been 
extensively  worked,  and  produces  a  very  high  quality  of 
salt.  In  1880  its  production  was  312,000  bushels.- 

The  principal  industry  of  the  State  is  agriculture,  and  in  that 
cotton  takes  the  first  place.  Out  of  a  total  area  of  tilled  land  of 
two  and  a  half  million  acres,  more  than  one-third  was  planted  in 
1879  with  cotton.  The  total  production  was  508,569  bales,  an 
average  of  "59  of  a  bale  per  acre.  Louisiana  stood  seventh  in  the  list 
of  cotton-producing  States,  being  exceeded  by  Mississippi,  Georgia, 
Texas,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  and  South  Carolina.  The  cotton  crop 
is  cultivated  both  in  the  alluvial  and  the  upland  regions.  In  the 
former  there  were  raised  in  1879  282,390  bales,  on  364,790  acres,  an 
average  yield  per  acre  of  77  of  a  bale.  In  the  latter  region  498,080 
acres  were  planted,  giving  a  total  yield  of  225,385  bales,  an  average 
of  '45  of  a  bale  per  acre.  The  great  depth  and  fertility  of  the 
alluvial  soils  are  strikingly  illustrated  by  these  average  yields.  In 
the  coast  swamp  region  but  little  cotton  is  cultivated,  —  the  total 
yield  in  these  parishes,  as  reported  by  the  census,  being  but 
794  bales. 

The  production  of  other  agricultural  products,  as  given  by  the 
census  of  1880,  is  as  follows  :  — 


Indian  corn  
Oats  

Bush.    9,906,1S9 
229,810 

Wheat  

,,               fl,(3t 

Eye   .  ... 

1,013 

Tlhrts.       171,70(5 

Sugar  cane  ..-|M(^las-s--;-    ;;;;;; 

Sweet  potatoes  
Uice              .            

Bush.     1,318,110 
lb       23,1890:18 

Tobacco  

55,95-1 

Rice  is  cultivated  almost  entirely  in  the  lower  coast  region,  on  the 
margin  of  the  swamps,  upon  their  prairie  islands,  and  in.  the 
alluvial  region  south  of  Red  River. 

With  the  exception  of  its  navigable  streams,  the  State  is  not  well 
supplied  with  the  means  of  transportation.  The  only  railroads  of 
importance  are  —  the  Chicago,  St  Louis,  and  New  Orleans,  which 
connects  New  Orleans  with  Cairo,  Illinois  ;  the  Louisiana  and 
Texas  Railroad  (Morgans),  which  runs  from  New  Orleans  westward 
to  Vermillionville,  and  thence  northward  to  Cheneyville  ;  the 
Louisiana  Western  Railroad,  from  Vermillionville  to  Orange  in 
Texas;  the  New  Orleans  and  Pacific  Railroad,  from  New  Orleans  to 
•Shreveport  ;  and  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport,  and  Pacific  Railroad, 
running  from  Delta  to  Monroe.  Besides  these  there  are  several 
minor  lines.  The  total  length  of  railroad  is  632^  miles,  and  the 

1  Of  these  two  species  of  trees,  Professor  Sargent,  of  the  United 
States  Census  Bureau,  estimates  that  there  were  standing  on  June  1, 
1880,  26,558,000,000  feet  of  the  long-leaved  and  21,625,000,000  feet 
of  the  short-leaved  species.  The  cut  of  the  former  for  the  census  year 
was  61,882,000,  and  of  the  latter  22,709,000  feet,  the  total  cut  being 
but  -2  per  cent,  of  the  amount  standing.  There  is  every  probability, 
however,  that  the  rate  of  destruction  will  increase  greatly  in  the  future. 


cost  of  construction  $44,869,342.     The  gross  returns  for  1880  were 
§3,238,318,  and  the  net  returns  $984,497. 

Louisiana,   like  the  other  Southern    States,  has  latterly  made  Manu- 
great  advances  in  the  manufacture   of  home  products.     In  1880  factures. 
there  were  120  looms  and  6096  spindles,  which  used  1354  bales 
of  raw  cotton. 

The  banking  interest  is  not  extensive,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  Banking 
following  statement,  from  the  report  of  the  comptroller  of  the  cur 
rency  in  1880:— 


Number. 

Capital. 

- 

$2  875  000 

3 

2  723  698 

liivate  bunkers  

8 

53,333 

Total  

18 

5,652,031 

The  number  and  circulation  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  for 
1880  are  as  follows:— 


Number. 

Circulation. 

Dailies     .              

13 

38  765 

97 

(\f  1  1  s 

2 

950 

According  to  the  census  of  1880,  the  population  of  the  State  Popula- 
was  939,946.     This  was  divided  nearly  equally  between  the  sexes,  tioii. 
females  being  but  slightly  in  excess.     The  proportion  of  the  popu 
lation  which  was  of  foreign  birth  was  very  small,  being  but  5  "5 
per  cent.,  while  in  respect  of  race,  the  negro  element  outnumbered 
the  whites,  being  51 '5  per  cent,    of  the  total   population.     The 
following  table  gives  the  number  in  each  of  the  above  classes: — 

Male. *4R8,75l         White 4.U.954 

Female  471,192 

.N'ntive  StTi.SOO 

Foreign 51,140 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  gro\\th  of  the  State  in  popu 
lation  since  it  became  a,  portion  of  the  United  States: — 


Per 

Density 

Pel- 

Density 

Population. 

Ceil',  of 

of  Popu 

Population. 

Cent,  of 

of  Popu 

Increase. 

lation. 

Increase. 

lation. 

1S10 

76,556 

1-7 

1850 

517,762 

46-9 

11-4 

IS-.'O 

1  52,92  ! 

99-7 

3-4 

1S60 

708,002 

36-7 

15-6 

is  ;o 

215,7:i9 

4.1-0 

4-7 

1S70 

726,915 

2-6 

16-0 

1840 

352,411 

C3-3 

7-8 

1880 

939,040 

29-3 

20-0 

The  principal  cities  are  New  Orleans,  with  a  population  of 
216,090  ;  Shreveport,  in  the  north-western  corner,  population 
8009  ;  and  Baton  Rouge,  the  State  capital,  7197  .* 

The  State  is  fairly  well  provided  with  the  means  of  education.  Eiluca- 
School  attendance,  however,  is  not  very  general.     Out  of  a  popu-  tion. 
lation  of  330,930  between  the  ages  of  six  and  sixteen,  78,528  were 
enrolled  in  public  schools,  and  the  estimated  average  attendance  was 
50,248,   or  less  than   one-sixth.     There   are  in   the   State  seven 
colleges,  with  49  instructors  and  786  students. 

As  in  the  other  States  of  the  Union,  the  government  is  distri-  Adminis 
birted  among  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  departments,  tratiou. 
The  executive  is  represented  by  the  governor,  lieutenant-gover 
nor,  secretary  of  state,  State  treasurer,  auditor  of  public  accounts, 
attorney-general,  and  superintendent  of  instruction — all  these 
offices  being  elective,  and  the  period  of  incumbency  four  years. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly  consisting 
of  two  branches,  the  lower  one  being  the  house  of  representatives 
and  the  upper  one  the  senate.  The  members  of  the  former  body 
are  elected  every  two  years,  and  the  number  is  by  law  never  to 
exceed  120  nor  be  less  than  90.  The  members  of  the  senate  are 
elected  for  four  years.  The  number  of  senators  is  fixed  at  36,  and 
the  senatorial  districts  are  apportioned  according  to  the  population. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  district  and 
parish  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme  court,  except 
in  cases  specially  provided  for  by  law,  has  appellate  jurisdiction 
only.  It  is  composed  of  one  chief  justice  and  four  associate  justices. 
These  are  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  senate,  and  hold  office  for  a  term  of  eight  years. 
The  State  is  divided  by  the  legislature  into  judicial  districts,  in 
each  of  which  there  is  a  district  court.  The  number  of  districts  in 
the  State  cannot  by  law  be  less  than  twelve  nor  more  than  twenty. 
The  district  judges  are  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  district,  and  hold 
office  for  four  years.  Each  parish  has  its  own  court.  The  parish 
judge  is  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  parish,  and  holds  his  office  for 
two  years.  In  addition  to  this  each  parish  elects  a  certain  number 
of  justices  of  the  peace  with  power  to  try  minor  cases.  The  State  is 
divided  into  fifty-eight  parishes  (equivalent  to  counties),  and  each  of 
these  into  a  certain  number  of  police  jury  wards  which  are  designated 
by  their  numbers. 

2  The  capital  was  removed  from  New  Orleans  to  Baton  Rouge  in 
1880. 


22 


L  O  U  — L  0  U 


Louisiana  is  represented  in  the  National  Congress  by  two  senators 
who  are  chosen  by  the  legislature  of  the  State  for  a  term  of  six 
years,  and  by  six  representatives  who  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  two 
years  by  the  voters  of  the  several  representative  districts. 
Fiuauce.       The  following  table,  compiled  from  the  returns  of  wealth,  debt, 
.••nd  taxation  of  the  tenth  United  States  census,  shows  the  financial 
'•ondition  of  the  State  in  1880. 
Valuation  (Assisted) — 

Real  estate  $122,362,297 

Personal  property 37,800.142 

Debt— 

State 23,437.140 

Parish  1.107.951 

.Municipal 18,320,361 

Taxation — 

State  1,171,084 

Parish  710.573 

Municipal 1,914,219 

History.  History. — The  early  history  of  the  exploration  of  Louisiana  forms 
one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  annals  of  the  country. 
It  was  first  visited  in  1541  by  De  Soto,  cf  the  Spanish  Govern 
ment  service.  This  daring  explorer,  landing  on  the  coast  of 
Florida,  made  his  way  through  the  pathless  forests  and  almost 
impassable  swamps  to  the  Mississippi,  and  even  penetrated  many 
leagues  west  of  it,  finally  leaving  his  bones  upon  its  shores.  In 
1673  Marquette  and  Joliet,  starting  from  the  settlements  in  Canada, 
descended  the  great  river  from  northern  Illinois  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Arkansas.  In  1682  La  Salle  descended  the  Mississippi,  also 
starting  from  the  French  settlements  in  the  Canadas.  He  navi 
gated  the  river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  to  the  Gulf.  Re 
turning  to  France,  he  originated  a  scheme  for  colonizing  the  country, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  France  the  desired  concessions, 
and  in  collecting  a  company  of  colonists,  which  set  sail  from 
Eochelle  on  the  24th  of  July  1684.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  correct  longitudes  at  sea,  the  vessel  missed  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  finally  landed  on  the  shore  of  Matagorda  Bay, 
in  Texas,  where  they  established  a  colony.  From  this  point  La 
Salle  started  to  make  his  way  overland  to  Canada,  but  was  treacher 
ously  murdered  by  his  companions.  Shortly  after  his  death  the 
colony  disappeared. 

The  first  successful  attempt  at  settlement  within  the  State  was 
made  by  the  French  under  the  leadership  of  Iberville  in  1700.  The 
colony  was  located  at  a  point  on  the  Mississippi  about  38  miles 
below  the  present  site  of  New  Orleans,  now  known  as  "  Poverty 
Point."  At  first  it  was  by  no  means  prosperous,  and  it  was  only 
after  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  that  ib  appears  to  have  gained  ground. 
At  that  time  there  were  not  over  five  hundred  Europeans  in  the 
whole  territory  of  Louisiana  as  then  constituted;  the  greater  part 
were  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Louisiana,  the  others  being 
scattered  at  a  few  little  posts  along  the  Mississippi  and  Illinois 
rivers.  Immediately  after  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  the  king  of 
France  granted  the  whole  territory  of  Louisiana  to  Antoine  Oozat, 
cading  to  him  all  the  territories  watered  by  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries  below  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  with  all  the  privileges 
of  hunting,  fishing,  commerce,  mining,  &c. ,  which  might  arise  in 
this  new  territory.  Crozat  appointed  Cadillac  governor  of  the 
colony.  Affairs, however,  went  badly  under  the  new  administration, 
and  after  a  succession  of  governors,  the  whole  district  fell  into  the 
hands  of  John  Law,  the  originator  of  the  famous  "Mississippi 
scheme. "  Desiring  to  control,  among  other  commercial  monopolies, 
the  colony  of  Louisiana,  Law  found  it  an  easy  matter  to  obtain 
the  charter  and  privileges  from  Crozat,  who  was  only  too  glad  to 
reliuquisi  them  in  his  favour.  A  company  was  formed  under  the 
name  of  the  "Western  Company."  Grants  made  to  it  were  for 
twenty-five  years.  Subscribers  to  the  stock  were  allowed  to  pay 
three -fourths  of  the  purchase  money  in  the  depreciated  bonds  of 
France,  one-fourth  only  of  the  subscription  being  asked  for  in  coin. 
Bienville,  brother  of  Iberville,  and' a  man  possessing  great  influ 
ence  in  the  colony,  was  appointed  governor.  One  of  his  first  acts 
vva"?  to  found  the  city  of  New  Orleans  on  its  present  site.  During 
the  year  1718  7  vessels  were  sent  out  with  stores  and  emigrants, 
numbering  in  all  about  1500  persons.  The  following  year  11  ships 
were  despatched,  and  500  negroes  from  the  Guinea  coast  were  im 
ported.  In  1721  1000  white  emigrants  arrived,  and  1367  slaves. 

In  the  meantime  the  Western  Company  had  obtained  from  the 
regent  power  to  join  with  it  the  East  India  Company  grants,  and 
its  name  was  changed  to  that  of  the  India  Company.  This  inflated 
scheme  burst  in  due  time,  but  the  misfortunes  of  the  company 
did  not  check  the  prosperity  of  the  colony.  The  year  1721,  which 
was  that  following  the  financial  ruin  of  the  former,  witnessed  the 
greatest  immigration  to  the  colony  which  it  had  ever  received. 
The  company  retained  its  organization  and  its  grant  of  Louisiana 
until  1732,  when  the  province  reverted  to  the  crown.  At  that 
time  the  population  of  the  colony  was  said  to  have  been  5000 
whites  and  2000  slaves  ;  but  a  census  taken  fifteen  years  later  shows 
a  population  of  only  4000  whites. 

In  1762,  by  a  secret  treaty,  the  province  was  transferred  from 
France  to  Spain.  This  treaty  was  not  made  public  till  a  year  and 
a  half  after  it  was  signed,  and  Spain  did  not  obtain  possession 


until  1769.  Meanwhile,  in  February  1763,  by  a  treaty  made 
between  France  and  Spain  on  the  one  hand  and  Great  Britain  and 
Portugal  on  the  other,  the  portion  of  Louisiana  lying  east  of  the 
Mississippi  frarn  its  source  to  the  river  Iberville,  and  thence  along 
the  middle  of  the  Iberville  and  the  lakes  Maurepas  and  Pontchar- 
train  to  the  sea,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  In  this  treaty,  by 
implication,  Louisiana  was  made  to  extend  to  the  sources  o'f  the 
Mississippi,  and  this  is  the  view  commonly  held.  The  province 
was  governed  by  Spain  till  the  year  1800,  in  the  meantime  making 
little  or  no  progress  owing  to  the  narrow  and  oppressive  policy 
pursued  towards  it  by  the  home  government.  By  the  treaty  of  1783 
with  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  were  placed  in  possession  of 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  as  far  down  as  the  31st 
degree  of  latitude,  while  Spain  held  possession  of  the  other  bank, 
and  had  complete  possession  of  the  river  below  the  31st  parallel. 

From  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  in  the  valley  of  the  Missis 
sippi  and  its  tributaries,  the  importance  of  the  river  as  a  means  of 
transportation  to  the  seaboard,  and  the  almost  absolute  necessity  of 
possessing  the  country  about  its  mouths,  were  recognized  by  the 
United  States.  As  settlements  increased  in  the  valley  and  spread 
down  the  river,  and  as  the  hostile  policy  of  Spain  became  more 
and  more  plainly  developed,  the  feeling  of  the  settlers  became 
stronger  against  the  restrictions  of  the  Spanish  Government.  In 
1800,  however,  Spain  ceded  the  territory  back  to  France,  and  in  1803 
it  was  sold  to  the  United  States  by  Napoleon,  in  order  to  prevent 
it  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  Great  Britain.  The  price  was 
60,000,000  francs,  with  a  stipulation  that  the  United  States  should 
assume  the  claims  of  its  citizens  against  France  (French  spoliation 
claims),  which  were  estimated  to  amount  to  $3,750,000.  The  pro 
vince  which  thus  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  was 
of  vast  though  ill-defined  territorial  extent. 

In  1804  nearly  all  of  what  is  now  the  State  of  Louisiana  was 
erected  into  a  territory,  under  the  name  of  Orleans.  In  1810  this 
was  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  south-eastern  portion,  east  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  and  in  1812  it  was  admitted  as  a  State  under 
its  present  name,  and  with  its  present  boundaries.  During  the 
war  with  Great  Britain,  which  followed  shortly  after,  a  battle  was 
fought  for  the  possession  of  New  Orleans,  between  the  British  forces 
under  Pakeuham  and  the  American  army  under  Jackson,  in  which 
the  former  were  signally  defeated.  Up  to  1860  the  development  of 
the  State  was  very  rapid,  especially  in  the  direction  of  agriculture 
and  commerce. 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  the  State  promptly  joined  its 
fortunes  with  the  Southern  Confederacy.  Its  act  of  secession  from 
the  Union  was  passed  December  23,  1860,  and  from  that  time  until 
the  final  suppression  of  the  rebellion  the  State  government  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Confederates,  although  for  the  last  two  years  of 
the  war  its  territory  was  held  in  the  main  by  the  Federal  forces. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  war  the  State  suffered  but  little,  but  in  April 
18G2  Admiral  Farragut  with  a  powerful  fleet  succeeded  in  passing 
Forts  Jackson  and  St  Philip,  which  defended  the  approaches  to 
New  Orleans,  and  captured  the  city,  thus  compelling  the  evacuation 
of  the  forts.  The  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  being  secured  by 
this  means  and  by  operations  from  the  north,  the  State  was  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Federal  Government.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  on  the 
reorganization  of  the  State  government,  the  administration  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  ignorant  negro  classes  led  by  unscrupulous  whites, 
and  an  unfortunate  state  of  affairs  ensued,  which  was  brought 
to  an  end  only  by  the  arbitrary  and  forcible  assumption  of  power 
by  the  better  elements  of  society.  This  occurred  in  1877,  and 
since  that  time  the  State  has  prospered  markedly  in  all  material 
respects.  (II.  G. ) 

LOUISVILLE,  the  sixteenth  city  of  the  United  States 
in  population,  and  the  most  important  place  in  the  State 
of  Kentucky,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ohio 
river,  in  38°  3'  N.  lat.  and  85°  30'  W.  long.  The  river  is 
here  interrupted  by  a  series  of  rapids  which,  except  at  high 
water,  oblige  the  steamboat  traffic  to  make  use  of  the 
Louisville  and  Portland  Canal  (2|  miles  long,  constructed 
in  1833).  The  city,  which  has  an  area  of  13  square  miles, 
and  a  water  front  of  8  miles,  occupies  an  almost  level  site 
about  70  feet  above  low-water  mark.  Its  plan  is  regular 
and  spacious,  and,  in  the  residential  portions  the  houses, 
for  the  most  part,  have  lawns  and  gardens  in  front. 
Among  the  public  buildings  of  importance  may  be  men 
tioned  the  city-hall,  the  court-house,  the  public  library, 
the  female  high  school,  the  industrial  exhibition  building, 
the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  and  the  State  school  for  the 
blind. 

From  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  steam  navigation 
upon  the  Ohio  by  Fulton  in  1812,  Louisville  rapidly  gained 
in  importance  as  a  centre  of  river  trade.  Owing  to  its 


LOUISVILLE 


23 


position  at  the  "  falls  of  the  Ohio,"  which  obstruction  long 
made  necessary  the  transfer  of  goods  at  this  point,  the  city 
became  an  important  depot  of  supplies  for  the  cotton-grow 
ing  States  lying  immediately  to  the  south.  The  owners 
of  plantations  in  those  States  devoted  themselves  wholly 
to  the  culture  of  cotton,  and  relied  upon  Kentucky  for 
supplies  of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  oats,  and  the  like  cereals, 
for  the  hempen  bagging  and  rope  used  in  baling  the  cotton, 
and  for  mules  and  horses,  large  droves  of  which  were 
annually  driven  south  from  Louisville.  The  city  was  also 
for  many  years  one  of  the  principal  points  in  the  United 
States  for  pork-packing. 

After  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  the  development  of 
Kentucky,  as  of  the  South  generally,  entered  new  channels. 
Largely  increased  facilities  of  railway  transportation,  while 
bringing  Louisville  into  more  direct  competition  with 
Cincinnati,  St  Louis,  and  Chicago,  resulted  in  a  marked 
increase  of  both  its  commercial  and  manufacturing  interests, 
notwithstanding  the  decline  of  the  river  trade.  The  ex 
tensive  tobacco  crop  of  Kentucky,  with  much  of  that  grown 


in  neighbouring  States,  now  finds  a  market  at  Louisville, 
instead  of  at  New  Orleans  as  formerly  ;  and  it  has  become 
probably  the  largest  market  in  the  world  for  leaf  tobacco, 
68,300  hogsheads  of  which,  of  an  aggregate  value  exceed 
ing  $5,000,000,  were  sold  here  during  1881.  The  manu 
facture  of  whisky  is  also  important,  this,  with  that 
of  tobacco,  paying  to  the  Federal  Government  nearly 
$3,000,000  annually  in  revenue  taxes,  in  the  Louisville 
district.  Pork-packing  employs  a  capital  of  $2,520,000, 
and  the  tanning  of  leather  $1,704,000,  this  industry 
being  twenty  times  larger  than  before  the  war,  and  the 
product,  especially  of  sole-leather,  being  in  high  demand. 
The  manufacture  of  agricultural  and  mechanical  imple 
ments  employs  $1,915,000  capital,  the  plough  factories, 
which  produce  125,000  ploughs  annually,  being  among 
the  largest  in  the  United  States.  Steam-power  is  chiefly 
employed,  the  available  water-power  of  the  rapids  having 
been  neglected.  The  greater  part  of  the  coal  consumed  by 
the  factories  is  brought  down  the  Ohio  from  Pittsburg. 
The  mountainous  eastern  portion  of  the  State,  rich  in  vast 


Plan  of  Louisville. 


deposits  of  both  coal  and  iron,  is  now  penetrated  by  several 
railroads,  and  others  are  being  constructed,  whose  influence 
in  developing  this  mineral  wealth  will  add  largely  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  city. 

The  reports  of  the  United  States  census  of  1880  give  the 
following  summary  of  the  industries  of  the  city  : — 


I860. 

1870. 

1880. 

Number  of  establish 
ments  

I        436 

801 

1,191 

Number     of     hands 
employed  .. 

7,396 

11,589 

21,937 

Capital  invested  
Wages  paid  

$5,023,491 
2  120  179 

$11,129,291 
4  464  040 

$20,864,449 

K  7firi  ^&7 

Value  of  material  
Value  of  product  .... 

7,896,891 
14,135,517 

10,369,556 
20,364,650 

22,362,704 
35,908,338 

The  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railway,  opened  in  1859, 
controls,  under  one  management,  nearly  4000  miles  of 
connected  lines,  reaching  New  Orleans,  Pensacola,  and 
Savannah.  Various  other  lines  contribute  to  make  Louis 
ville  an  important  railway  centre. 

A  bridge  across  the  river,  521 8f  feet  long  between 
abutments,  with  twenty-seven  spans,  and  admitting  the 
free  passage  of  steamboats  at  high  water,  affords  con 
tinuous  railway  transit,  and  connects  the  city  with  the 
thriving  towns  of  New  Albany  (population  16,423)  and 
Jeffersonville  (population  9357),  situated  on  the  opposite 


bank  of  the  Ohio,  in  the  State  of  Indiana,  A  second  rail 
way  bridge,  having  waggon-ways  and  foot-ways  in  addition, 
is  now  (1882)  building. 

Louisville  is  provided  with  adequate  water-works,  gas 
works,  «tc.  The  famous  Dupont  artesian  well,  2066  feet 
deep,  has  a  flow  of  330,000  gallons  per  day,  with  a  force  of 
ten  horse-power,  its  water  resembling  slightly  that  of  the 
Kissengen  and  Blue  Lick  (Ky.)  springs.  Although  once 
regarded  as  unhealthy,  the  city  has  now  an  effective  system 
of  sewerage,  and  is  in  good  sanitary  condition. 

The  public  school  system  is  sustained  at  an  annual  expense 
of  over  $300,000,  abundant  separate  provision  being  made 
fur  coloured  children.  There  are  four  medical  colleges, 
having  a  large  attendance  and  reputation,  and  numerous 
private  seminaries  and  schools.  Among  the  newspapers 
published  at  Louisville  the  Courier  Journal  deserves  men 
tion  both  for  its  early  connexion  with  George  D.  Prentice, 
and  as  a  leading  representative  of  the  best  order  of  American 
journalism.  There  are  four  other  dailies  (two  English  and 
two  German),  besides  thirteen  weekly  sheets. 

Louisville  is  a  port  of  entry  for  foreign  imports,  which 
aggregate  annually  about  $125,000.  The  city  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  elected  every  third  year,  with  a  board  of  alder 
men  and  a  common  council,  the  former  containing  one,  and 
the  latter  two  representatives  of  each  of  the  twelve  wards. 
The  population  in  1830  was  10,341;  in  1840,  21,210; 
in  1850,  43,196;  in  1860,  68,033;  in  1870,  100,753; 


L  0  U  —  L  0  U 


and  in  1880  it  was  123,758.  This  last  total  includes 
20,905  persons  of  colour  and  23,156  foreigners,  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  latter  being  Germans. 

It  was  in  1778  that  Colonel  George  Rogers  Clarke,  on  his  way 
down  the  Ohio,  left  a  company  of  settlers  who  took  possession  of 
Corn  Island  (no  longer  existing),  near  the  Kentucky  shore  above 
the  falls  ;  and  in  the  following  year  the  first  rude  cluster  of  cabins 
appeared  on  the  site  of  the  present  city.  An  Act  of  the  Virginian 
legislature  in  1780  gave  the  little  settlement  the  rank  of  a  town, 
and  called  it  Louisville  in  honour  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  then 
assisting  the  American  colonies  in  their  struggle  for  independence. 
The  rank  of  city  was  conferred  by  the  Kentucky  legislature  in  1828. 

LOULE,  an  old  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  district  of  Faro 
and  province  of  Algarve,  is  beautifully  situated  in  an  inland 
hilly  district  about  5  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  port  of 
Faro.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  towers  dating  from 
the  Moorish  period,  and  the  principal  church  is  large  and 
fine.  The  special  industry  of  the  place  is  basket-making. 
The  population  in  1878  was  14,862.  The  neighbouring 
church  of  Nuestra  Senhora  da  Pietade  is  a  favourite  resort 
of  pilgrims. 

LOURDES,  capital  of  a  canton,  and  seat  of  the  civil 
court  of  the  arrondissement  of  Argeles,  in  the  department 
of  Hautes-Pyrendies,  France,  lies  12  miles  by  rail  south- 
south-west  of  Tarbes,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gave  de 
Pau,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  Argeles.  It  has 
grown  up  around  what  was  originally  a  Roman  castellum, 
and  subsequently  a  feudal  castle,  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  summit  of  a  bare  scarped  rock.  Near  the  town  are 
marble  quarries  employing  six  hundred  workpeople  ;  and 
forty  slate  quarries  give  occupation  to  two  hundred  and 
sixty  more.  The  pastures  of  the  highly  picturesque 
neighbourhood  support  the  race  of  milch  cows  which  is 
most  highly  valued  in  south-western  France.  The  present 
fame  of  Lourdes  is  entirely  associated  with  the  grotto  of 
Massavielle,  where  the  Virgin  Mary  is  believed  in  the 
Catholic  world  to  have  revealed  herself  repeatedly  to  a 
peasant  girl  in  1858;  the  spot,  which  is  resorted  to  by 
multitudes  of  pilgrims  from  all  quarters  of  the  world,  is 
now  marked  by  a  large  church  above  the  grotto,  consecrated 
in  1876  in  presence  of  thirty-five  cardinals  and  other  high 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
rosaries  and  other  "  objets  de  piete,"  as  well  as  in  the 
wonder-working  water  of  the  fountain,  for  which  a 
miraculous  origin  is  claimed.  Not  far  from  the  grotto  of 
Massaviella  are  several  other  caves  where  prehistoric 
remains,  going  back  to  the  Stone  Age  and  the  period  of 
the  reindeer,  have  been  found.  The  population  of  Lourdea 
in  1876  was  5470. 

LOUSE,  a  term  applied  indiscriminately  in  its  broad 
sense  to  all  epizoic  parasites  on  the  bodies  of  other  animals. 
From  a  more  particular  point  of  view,  however,  it  is  strictly 
applicable  only  to  certain  of  these  creatures  that  affect  the 
bodies  of  mammals  and  birds.  -  The  former  may  be  con 
sidered  as  lice  proper,  the  latter  are  commonly  known  as 
bird-lice  (although  a  few  of  their  number  infest  mammalia). 
Scientifically  they  are  now  generally  separated  into  Anoplura 
and  Mallophaga,  although  some  authors  would  include  all 
under  the  former  term.  In  the  article  INSECTS  it  has  been 
shown  that  modern  ideas  tend  towards  placing  the  Anoplura 
as  degraded  members  of  the  order  Ilemiptera,  and  Mallo- 
phaga  as  equally  degraded  Pseudo-Neuroptera,  according  to 
the  different  formation  of  the  mouth  parts.  Both  agree  in 
having  nothing  that  can  be  termed  a  metamorphosis ;  they 
are  active  from  the  time  of  their  exit  from  the  egg  to  their 
death,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  and  undergoing  several 
moults  or  changes  of  skin ;  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  many  insects  of  the  hemimetabolic  division  would 
scarcely  present  any  stronger  indications  of  metamor 
phoses  were  it  not  for  the  usual  outgrowth  of  wing1*, 
which  are  totally  wanting  in  the  lice. 


The  true  lice  (or  Anoplura}  are  found  on  the  bodies  of 
many  mammalia,  and,  as  is  too  well  known,  occasion  by 
their  presence  intolerable  irritation.  The  number  of  genera 
is  few.  Two  species  of  Pediculus  are  found  on  the  human 
body,  and  are  known  ordinarily  as  the  head-louse  (/•*. 
capitis)  and  the  body-louse  (P.  vestimenti) ;  some  appear 
to  recognize  a  third  (P.  tabescentiuni),  particularly  affect 
ing  persons  suffering  from  disease,  burrowing  (at  any  rate 
when  young)  beneath  the  skin,  and  setting  up  what  is 
termed  "  phthiriasis "  in  such  a  terrible  form  that  the 
unhappy  victims  at  length  succumb  to  its  attacks ;  to  this 
several  historical  personages  both  ancient  and  modern  are 
said  to  have  fallen  victims,  but  it  is  open  to  very  grave 
doubts  whether  this  frightful  condition  of  things  was  due 
to  other  than  the  attacks  of  myriads  of  the  ordinary  body- 
louse.  P.  capitis  is  found  on  the  head,  especially  of 
children.  The  eggs,  laid  on  the  hairs,  hatch  in  about  eight 
days,  and  the  lice  are  full  grown  in  about  a  month.  Such 
is  the  fecundity  of  lice  that  it  is  asserted  by  Leeuwenhoek 
that  one  female  (probably  of  P.  vestimenti)  may  in  the 
course  of  eight  weeks  witness  the  birth  of  five  thousand 
descendants.  Want  of  cleanliness  undoubtedly  favours 
their  multiplication  in  a  high  degree,  but  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  here  to  allude  to  the  idea  once  existing,  and 
probably  still  held  by  the  very  ignorant,  to  the  effect  that 
they  are  directly  engendered  from  dirt.  The  irritation  is 
caused  by  the  rostrum  of  the  insect  being  inserted  into 
the  skin,  from  which  the  blood  is  rapidly  pumped  up. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  that  the  head-louse 
(and,  in  a  smaller  degree,  the  body-louse)  is  liable  to  slight 
variation  in  structure,  and  also  in  colour,  according  to  the 
races  of  men  infested.  This  was  probably  first  enunciated 
by  Pouchet  in  1841,  and  the  subject  received  more  ex 
tended  examination  by  Andrew  Murray  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in 
1861  (vol.  xxii.  pp.  567-577),  who  apparently  shows  that 
some  amount  of  variation  does  exist,  but  there  is  yet  need 
for  further  investigation.  That  lice  are  considered  bonnes 
bouches  by  certain  uncivilized  tribes  is  well  known.  It 
would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss  here  the  possible  interpre 
tation  of  the  Biblical  reference  to  "  lice  "  (cf.  Exodus  viii. 
16,  17).  A  third  human  louse  is  known  as  the  crab-louse 
(Phthirius  imbis}  \  this  disgusting  creature  is  found  amongst 
the  hairs  on  other  parts  of  the  body,  particularly  those  of 
the  pubic  region,  but  probably  never  on  the  head  ;  although 
its  presence  may  generally  be  looked  upon  as  indicating 
dissolute  association,  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  always 
resulting  therefrom,  as  it  may  be  accidentally  acquired  by 
the  most  innocent.  The  louse  of  monkeys  is  now  generally 
considered  as  forming  a  separate  genus  (Pedicinus),  but  the 
greater  part  of  those  infesting  domestic  and  wild  quadrupeds 
are  mostly  grouped  in  the  large  genus  Hsematopinus,  and 
very  rarely  is  the  same  species  found  on  different  kinds  of 
animals ;  one  species  is  found  on  the  seal,  and  even  the 
walrus  does  not  escape,  a  new  species  (H.  trichechi)  having 
been  recently  discovered  affecting  the  axillae  (and  other 
parts  where  the  skin  is  comparatively  soft)  of  that  animal. 

The  bird-lice  (or  Mallophagd)  are  far  more  numerous 
in  species,  although  the  number  of  genera  is  comparatively 
small.  With  the  exception  of  the  genus  Trichodectes,  the 
various  species  of  which  are  found  on  mammalia,  all 
infest  birds  (as  their  English  name  implies).  As  the  mouth 
parts  of  these  creatures  are  not  capable  of  being  extended 
into  a  sucking  tube,  but  are  clearly  mandibulate,  it  appears 
probable  that  they  feed  more  particularly  on  the  scurf  of 
the  skin  and  feathers  ;  nevertheless  great  irritation  must  be 
caused  by  their  presence,  for  it  is  notorious  that  cage-birds, 
much  infested,  will  peck  themselves  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
cause  death  in  their  endeavours  to  get  rid  of  the  parasites. 
Several  hundred  species  are  already  known.  Sometimes 


L  O  U  — L  0  U 


two  or  three  species  (ordinarily  of  different  genera)  infest 
the  same  species  of  bird,  and  the  same  species  of  louse  is 
not  often  found  in  different  birds,  unless  those  latter 
happen  to  be  closely  allied.  But  in  aviaries  and  zoological 
gardens  such  cases  do  occasionally  occur,  as  is  natural 
under  the  circumstances.  These  are  analogous  to  the 
occasional  presence  of  the  flea  of  the  cat,  dog,  domestic 
fowl,  etc.,  on  man  ;  temporary  annoyance  is  caused  thereby, 
but  the  conditions  are  not  favourable  for  the  permanent 
location  of  the  parasites.  Notwithstanding  the  marked 
preference  shown  by  a  special  kind  of  bird-lice  for  a 
special  host,  there  is  also  a  marked  preference  shown  by  the 
individual  species  of  certain  genera  or  groups  of  lice  for 
allied  species  of  birds,  which  bears  upon  the  question  of 
the  possible  variation  of  human  lice  according  to  the  race 
infested. 

Literature. — The  following  works  are  tlie  most  important: — 
Denny,  Monoyraphia  Anoplurorum  Britannise,  London,  1843  ; 
Giebel,  Insecta  Epizoa  (which  contains  the  working-up  of  Nitzsch's 
posthumous  materials),  Leipsic,  1874  ;  Van  Beneden,  Animal 
Parasites,  London,  1876  ;  Piaget,  Les  Ptdiculines,  Leyden,  1880  ; 
Megnin,  Lcs  Parasites  et  les  Maladies  Parasitaircs,  Paris,  1880. 

LOUTH,  a  maritime  county  in  the  province  of  Leinster, 
Ireland,  is  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  Carlingford  Bay  and 
the  county  of  Down,  E.  by  the  Irish  Sea,  S.W.  by  Meath, 
and  N.W.  by  Monaghan  and  Armagh.  It  is  the  smallest 
county  in  Ireland,  the  area  comprising  202,124  acres,  or 
316  square  miles. 

The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  undulating,  with 
occasionally  lofty  hills ;  and  in  the  north-east,  on  the 
borders  of  Carlingford  Bay,  there  is  a  range  of  mountains 
approaching  2000  feet  in  height.  Many  of  the  hills  are 
finely  wooded,  and  towards  the  sea-coast  the  scenery,  in 
the  more  elevated  districts,  is  strikingly  picturesque.  The 
northern  mountains  are  composed  of  felspathic  and 
pyroxenic  rocks.  The  lower  districts  rest  chiefly  on  clay- 
slate  and  limestone.  With  the  exception  of  the  promontory 
of  Clogher  Head,  which  rises  abruptly  to  a  height  of  180 
feet,  the  sea-coast  is  for  the  most  part  low  and  sandy. 
The  narrow  and  picturesque  bay  of  Carlingford  is  navigable 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  county,  and  the  bay  of  Dundalk 
stretches  to  the  town  of  that  name  and  affords  convenient 
shelter  for  a  harbour.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Fane, 
the  Lagan,  the  Glyde,  and  the  Dee,  which  all  flow  east 
wards.  None  of  these  are  navigable,  but  the  Boyne,  which 
forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the  county,  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels  as  far  as  Drogheda. 

Agriculture. — In  the  lower  regions  the  soil  is  a  very  rich 
deep  mould,  admirably  adapted  both  for  cereals  and  green 
crops.  The  higher  mountain  regions  are  covered  principally 
with  heath.  Agriculture  generally  is  in  an  advanced  con 
dition,  and  the  farms  are  for  the  most  part  well  drained. 

In  1880  there  were  97,954  acres,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the  total 
area,  under  tillage,  while  74,944  were  pasture,  4585  plantations, 
and  24,135  waste.  The  total  number  of  holdings  in  1880  was  8216, 
of  which  1294  were  less  than  1  acre  in  extent.  No  less  than  5340 
were  below  15  acres  in  extent,  and  of  these  2486  were  between  5 
and  15  acres.  The  following  table  shows  the  areas  under  the  prin 
cipal  crops  in  1855  and  1881  : — 


Other 

Meadow 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Potatoes. 

Turnips. 

Green 

Flax. 

and 

Total. 

Crops. 

Clover. 

1855 

9.074    !  38,530 

22.028 

12.010 

9,235 

2,548 

190 

17,286 

Ill,  .-.01 

1881 

3,382 

26,543     20.1520 

11,856 

9,906 

1,696 

1,307 

22,081 

97,391 

Between  1855  and  1881  horses  have  diminished  from  12,133  to 
10,810,  of  which  7394  are  used  for  agricultural  purposes.  The 
number  of  cattle  has  increased  only  slightly,  from  32,107  to  34,739, 
of  which  8728  are  milch  cows.  Sheep  in  1855  numbered  31,712,  and 
33,362  in  1881.  Pigs  in  1881  numbered  10,471,  and  poultry 
241,446.  According  to  the  last  return  the  land  was  divided  among 
1279  proprietors,  who  possessed  200,287  acres,  with  an  annual  rate- 
sible  value  of  £209,090,  or  20s.  lOd.  per  acre.  Of  the  owners,  45 
per  cent,  possessed  less  than  1  acre,  and  the  average  size  of  the 


properties  was  156  acres.  The  largest  proprietors  were  Lord  Cler- 
luont,  20, 309  acres;  Viscount  Masserene,  7193;  A.  H.  Smith  Barry, 
6239  ;  Colonel  J.  0.  W.  Fortescue,  5262  ;  and  Lord  Bellew,  5109". 

Manufactures  and  Trade.— Sheetings  and  coarse  linen  cloth  are 
manufactured  in  some  places.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged 
in  deep-sea  fishing,  and  there  is  a  very  valuable  oyster  fishery  in 
Carlingford  Bay.  At  Newry,  Drogheda,  and  Dundalk  a  consider 
able  coasting  trade  is  carried  on. 

Hailways. — The  county  is  intersected  from  north  to  south  by  the 
Dundalk  and  Belfast  line,  and  the  Irish  North-Western  line  passes 
westwards  from  Dundalk  to  Enniskillen. 

Administration  and  Population. — The  county  includes  6  baronies, 
64  parishes,  and  674  townlands.  It  is  in  the  north-eastern  circuit. 
Assizes  are  held  at  Dundalk,  and  quarter  sessions  at  Ardee, 
Drogheda,  and  Dundalk.  There  are  ten  petty  sessions  districts 
within  the  county  and  a  portion  of  one.  It  includes  portions  of 
the  three  poor-law  unions  of  Ardee,  Drogheda,  and  Dundalk.  With 
the  exception  of  Drogheda,  which  is  in  the  Dublin  military  district, 
the  county  is  in  the  Belfast  military  district ;  and  there  are  barracks 
at  Dundalk.  Besides  the  two  members  at  present  returned  by  the 
county,  and  one  member  by  each  of  the  boroughs  of  Drogheda 
and  Dundalk,  Louth  in  the  Irish  parliament  was  represented  by 
an  additional  member  for  each  of  the  boroughs  of  Drogheda  and 
Dundalk,  and  by  two  members  for  each  of  the  boroughs  of  Ardee, 
Carlingford,  and  Dunleer.  The  principal  towns  are  Drogheda 
(14,662)  and  Dundalk  (12,294).  In  1760  the  population  was  esti 
mated  at  67,572,  which  in  1841  had  increased  to  128,347,  but  in 
1851  had  diminished  to  108,018,  in  1871  to  84,021,  and  in  1881  to 
78,228,  of  whom  38,241  were  males  and  39,987  females.  From  1st 
May  1851  to  31st  December  1881,  the  number  of  emigrants  waa 
33,521,  a  percentage  of  37 '2  of  the  average  population  during  that 
period.  The  marriage  rate  to  every  1000  of  estimated  population 
in  1880  was  3 '4,  the  birth  rate  23' 5,  and  the  death  rate  21 '4. 

History  and  Antiquities. — In  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  Louth  was 
inhabited  by  the  Voluntii.  Subsequently  it  was  included  in  the 
principality  of  Orgial  or  Argial,  which  comprehended  also  the 
greater  part  of  Mcath,  Monaghan,  and  Armagh.  A  subordinate 
territory  which  included  Louth  wasknown  &sffy-Conal  and  J/ac/mm-- 
Conal.  The  chieftain  of  the  district  was  conquered  by  John  de 
Courcy  in  1183,  and  in  1210  that  part  of  the  territory  now  known 
as  Louth  was  made  shire  ground  by  King  John,  and  peopled  by 
English  settlers.  Until  the  time  of  Elizabeth  it  was  included  iii 
Ulster. 

In  the  county  there  are  a  large  number  of  antiquarian  remains  of 
special  interest.  There  are  ruins  of  Druidical  altars  at  Balrighan  and 
Carrick  Edmond,  and  of  a  Druidical  temple  at  Ballinahatrey  near 
Dundalk.  The  round  tower  at  Monasterboice  is  in  very  good  preser 
vation,  and  there  are  remains  of  another  at  Dromiskin.  The  most 
remarkable  cromlechs  are  those  on  Killin  Hill  and  at  Ballymas- 
canlan.  At  Killin  Hill  there  is  an  extraordinary  fort  called  Faghs- 
na-ain-eighc,  or  "the  one  night's  work  "  ;  and  near  Ballymascanlan 
is  Castle  Rath,  surrounded  by  lesser  raths,  and  having  a  remarkable 
tumulus  in  its  vicinity.  About  2  miles  from  Dundalk  there  is  a 
very  ancient  structure,  the  origin  of  which  has  been  much  discussed. 
Near  Balrighan  there  is  a  curious  artificial  cave.  A  large  number 
of  spears,  swords,  axes  of  bronze,  gold  ornaments,  and  other  relics 
of  antiquity  have  been  discovered.  There  are  a  great  number  of 
Danish  and  other  old  forts.  Originally  there  are  sa?'d  to  have 
been  no  fewer  than  twenty  religious  houses  within  the  county.  Of 
these  there  are  interesting  remains  at  Carlingford  ;  at  Faughart, 
where  is  also  to  be  seen  St  Bridget's  stone  and  pillar  ;  at  Mellifont, 
the  architecture  of  which  is  specially  beautiful  and  elaborate  ;  and 
at  Monasterboice,  where  there  are  two  crosses,  one  of  which,  St 
Boyne's,  is  the  most  ancient  and  most  finely  decorated  in  Ire 
land. 

LOUTH,  a  municipal  borough  and  market-town  of 
Lincolnshire,  England,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  river 
Lud,  and  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  25 
miles  east-north-east  of  Lincoln.  By  means  of  a  canal, 
completed  in  17G3,  at  a  cost  of  £28,000,  there  is  water 
communication  with  Hull.  The  town  is  about  a  mile  in 
length,  and  is  well  built  and  paved.  The  church  of  St 
James,  completed  about  1516,  in  the  Later  English  style, 
with  a  spire  288  feet  in  height,  is  one  of  the  finest 
ecclesiastical  buildings  in  the  county.  There  are  an  Edward 
VI.  grammar  school,  which  is  richly  endowed,  a  commercial 
school  founded  in  1676,  and  a  national  school.  The  other 
public  buildings  include  a  town-hall,  a  corn  exchange, 
and  a  market-hall.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  a 
Cistercian  abbey,  founded  in  1139.  The  industries  in 
clude  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  tanning,  iron-founding, 
brewing,  malting,  lirne  burning,  and  rope  and  brickmaking. 

XV    —  4 


26 


L  O  U  — L  0  U 


The  population,  which  in  1851  was  10,407,  had  increased 
in  1871  to  10,500,  and  in  1881  to  10,690. 

Louth  is  a  corruption  of  Ludd,  the  ancient  name  of  the  river  Lud.    ' 
It  received  a  charter  of  incorporation  from  Edward  VI.     In  1536 
the  town  took  part  in  the  "  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,"  on  which  acconnt 
the  vicar  was  executed  at  Tyburn.     Alfred  and  Charles  Tennyson 
were  educated  at  the  grammar  school,  and  their  little  volume  en-  j 
titled  Poems  by  Two  Brothers  was  published  by  a  Louth  bookseller, 
whose  shop  still  exists. 

LOUVAIN,  a  town  of  Belgium  in  the  province  of 
Brabant,  18  miles  east  of  Brussels,  on  the  Lie'ge  and 
Cologne  Railway,  and  on  the  river  Dyle.  The  population 
in  1880  was  34,700.  Louvain  possesses  some  fine 
specimens  of  Gothic  art, — the  town-hall,  which  displays  a 
wealth  of  decorative  architecture  almost  unequalled  on  the 
Continent,  and  the  collegiate  church  of  St  Pierre,  with 
some  fine  sculptures  and  panels  by  Quentin  Matsys.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  town  to  the  casual  observer  is  dull 
and  cheerless ;  the  newer  portions,  extending  between  the 
town-hall  and  station,  consist  of  broad  streets  of  monotonous 
regularity,  while  the  old  mediaeval  quarter,  despite  its 
historic  interest,  is  somewhat  dingy  and  lifeless.  Louvain 
has  a  market  for  corn  and  cattle  as  well  as  for  cloth  wares  ; 
wood  carving  is  also  carried  on ;  but  the  chief  industry  of 
the  locality  is  brewing,  the  Louvain  beer,  a  lemon-coloured 
frothy  beverage,  being  held  in  high  repute  in  the  country. 
In  the  world  of  science  Louvain  holds  honourable  rank, 
having  a  celebrated  university,  an  academy  of  painting, 
a  school  of  music,  extensive  bibliographic  collections,  a 
museum  of  natural  history,  and  a  botanical  garden.  The 
university,  a  stronghold  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  was 
first  instituted  in  1425,  and  soon  grew  famous  among  the 
learned  of  all  nations.  In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  not 
less  than  six  thousand  students  flocked  thither  yearly,  and 
it  became  the  nursery  of  many  illustrious  men.  Swept 
away  for  a  time  by  the  first  French  Revolution,  it  was  re 
established  in  1835  ;  and,  though  less  conspicuous  than  in 
bygone  ages,  and  more  generally  confined  to  the  instruction 
of  the  youth  of  Belgium,  it  is  yet  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  country  as  the  only  Catholic  university,  and  one  of 
the  main  supports  of  the  Conservative  party. 

Like  Bruges  and  many  other  Flemish  towns,  Louvain  was  at  one 
time  a  great  and  flourishing  city,  with  a  population  of  200,000  souls, 
and  one  of  the  principal  markets  of  the  Continent.  The  turbulent 
spirit  of  the  people,  their  frequent  outbreaks  against  their  rulers, 
and  in  particular  the  massacre  of  the  patricians  in  1378,  were  the 
chief  causes  of  its  decline.  Duke  "Wenceslaus  of  Brabant,  in  a  spirit 
of  revenge  after  the  last-mentioned  rising,  imposed  so  heavy  taxes 
upon  the  people  that  they  emigrated  in  large  numbers.  A  hundred 
thousand  weavers  left  the  country,  carrying  abroad,  mainly  to  Eng 
land,  the  secrets  of  their  trade  ;  and  from  that  period  the  material 
prosperity  of  Louvain  has  steadily  diminished. 

LOUVIERS,  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  de 
partment  of  Eure,  France,  is  pleasantly  situated,  in  a  green 
valley  surrounded  by  wooded  hills,  on  the  Eure  (here 
divided  into  many  branches)/  71  miles  west-north-west 
from  Paris,  and  some  13  miles  from  Rouen  and  Evreux. 
The  old  part  of  the  town,  built  of  wood,  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river ;  the  more  modern  portions,  in  brick  and 
hewn  stone,  on  the  right.  There  are  several  good  squares, 
and  the  place  is  surrounded  by  boulevards.  The  Gothic 
church  of  Notre  Dame  has  a  fine  square  tower,  recently 
restored,  and  a  portal  which  ranks  among  the  richest  and 
most  beautiful  works  of  the  kind  produced  in  the  15th 
century  ;  it  contains  several  interesting  works  of  art.  The 
chief  industry  of  Louviers  is  the  cloth  and  flannel  manu 
facture.  There  are  also  nineteen  wool-spinning  mills,  five 
falling  mills,  and  important  thread  factories ;  and  paper- 
making,  tanning,  currying  and  tawing,  dyeing,  and  bleach 
ing  are  also  carried  on.  The  town  has  a  court  of  first 
instance,  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  chambers  of  manufactures 
and  agriculture,  and  a  council  of  prudhommes.  The 
population  in  1876  was  10,973. 


Louviers  was  originally  a  villa  of  the  dukes  of  Normandy  ;  its 
cloth-making  industry  first  arose  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen 
tury.  It  changed  hands  once  and  again  during  the  Hundred  Years' 
"War,  and  from  Charles  VII.  it  received  extensive  privileges,  and  the 
title  of  Louviers  le  Franc  for  the  bravery  of  its  inhabitants  in 
driving  the  English  from  Pout  de  1'Arche,  Verneuil,  and  Harcourt. 
It  passed  through  various  troubles  successively  at  the  period  of  the 
"  ligue  du  bien  public"  under  Louis  XL,  in  the  religious  wars 
(when  the  parliament  of  Rouen  sat  for  a  time  at  Louviers),  and  in 
the  wars  of  the  Fronde.  Its  industries  nevertheless  developed 
steadily  ;  before  the  Revolution  its  production  of  cloth  amounted  to 
3000  pieces  annually,  in  1837  the  number  had  risen  to  15,000,  and 
it  is  still  greater  now. 

LOUVOIS,  FKAN^OIS  MICHEL  LE  TELLIER,  MARQUIS  DE 

(1641-1691),  the  great  war  minister  of  Louis  XtV.,  was 

born  at  Paris  on  January  18,  1641.     His  father,  Michel  le 

Tellier,  sprung  from  a  bourgeois  family  of  Paris,  but  had 

attached  himself  to  the  parlement  of  Paris,  and   married 

the  niece  of  the  chancellor  Aligre.     He  won  the  favour  of 

De   Bullion,  the  superintendent  of  finances,  and  through 

him  obtained  the  intendancy  of  Piedmont,  where  he  made 

the  acquaintance  of  Mazarin.     He  was  Mazarin's  right  hand 

through  the  troublous  times  of  the  Fronde,  and   was  the 

medium  of  communication  between  him  and   the  queen, 

when  the  cardinal  was  in  nominal  disgrace  at  Briihl.     He 

had  been  made  secretary  of  state  in  1643,  and  on  the  death 

of  Mazarin  was  continued  in  his  office.     Like  Colbert  and 

unlike  Fouquet  he  recognized  the  fact  that  Louis  intended 

to    govern,   and  by  humouring  his   master's   passion   for 

knowing  every  detail  of  personnel  and  administration  he 

gained  great  favour  with  him.     He  married  his  son  to  a 

rich  heiress,  the  Marquise  de  Courtenvaux,  and  soon  began 

to  instruct  him  in  the  management  of  state  business.     The 

young  man  speedily  won  the  king's  confidence,  and  in  1666 

'  was  made   secretary  of  state  for  war  in  his  father's  room. 

His  talents  were  perceived  by  the   great  Turenne  in  the 

|  short  war  of   the  Devolution  (1667-68),  who  gave  him 

instruction  not  so  much  in   the  art  of  war  as  in  the  art  of 

providing  armies.      The   peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  signed, 

Louvois  devoted  himself  to   the  great  work  of  organizing 

the  French  army.     The  years  between   1668  and  1672, 

says  Camille  Rousset,  "  were  years  of  preparation,  when 

Lionne  was  labouring   with   all  his  might   to  find  allies, 

Colbert  to  find  money,  and  Louvois  soldiers   for  Louis." 

Louvois's  work  was  not  the  least  important  of  the  three, 

Till  then  armies  were  either  bodies  of  free  lances  collected 

round  a  particular  general  and  looking  to  him  for  pay,  or 

a  sort  of  armed  militia,  who  looked  on  soldiering  as  an 

interlude,  not  a  profession.     Louvois  understood  the  new 

condition   of  things,   and   organized   a  national    standing 

army.     In  his  organization,  which  lasted  almost  without  a 

change  till  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  leading 

points  must  be  noted.     First  among  them   was  the  almost 

forcible  enrolment  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  of   France, 

i  which  St  Simon  so  bitterly  complains  of,  and  in  which 

Louvois  carried  out  part  of  Louis's  measures  for  curbing 

the  spirit  of  independence  by  service  in  the  army  or  at  court. 

Then  must  be  mentioned  his  elaborate  hierarchy  of  officers, 

;  the  grades  of  which  with  their  respective  duties  he  estab- 

;  lished  for  the  first  time,  and  his  new  system  of  drill,  per- 

!  fected  by  Martinet.     Besides  the  army  itself,  he  organized 

for  its  support  a  system  of  payment  and  commissariat,  and 

1  a  hospital  system,  which  made  it  more  like  a  machine,  less 

dependent  on   the   weather,  and  far   superior  to   the  old 

German  system.     Further,  with   the  help  of  Vauban  he 

formed  a   corps  of  engineers,  and  lastly,  to   provide  the 

'  deserving  with  suitable  reward,  and  encourage  the  daring, 

he  reorganized  the  military  orders  of  merit,  and  founded  the 

Hotel  des  Invalides  at  Paris.     The  success  of  his  measures 

is  to  be  seen  in  the  victories  of  the  great  war  of  1672- 

1678,   in  which    his  old   instructor   Turenne  was   killed. 

!  After  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  in  1678,  Louvois  was  high 


L  0  V  —  L  O  V 


27 


in  favour,  his  father  Michel  le  Tellier  had  been  made 
chancellor,  and  his  only  opponent  Colbert  was  in  growing 
disfavour.  The  ten  years  of  peace  between  1078  and  1688 
were  distinguished  in  French  history  by  the  rise  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  the  capture  of  Strasburg,  and  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in  all  of  which  Louvois  bore  a  pro 
minent  part.  The  surprise  of  Strasburg  in  1681  in  time 
of  peace,  in  pursuance  of  an  order  of  the  chamber  of 
reunion,  was  not  only  planned  but  executed  by  Louvois 
and  Monclar,  and  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  he  claims  the  credit  of  inventing  the  dragonnades. 
Colbert  died  in  1683,  and  had  been  replaced  by  Le  Pelletier, 
an  adherent  of  Louvois,  in  the  controller-generalship  of 
finances,  and  by  Louvois  himself  in  his  ministry  for  public 
buildings,  which  he  took  that  he  might  be  the  minister  able 
to  gratify  the  king's  two  favourite  pastimes,  war  and  build 
ings.  Louvois  was  able  to  superintend  the  successes  of  the 
first  years  of  the  war  of  1688,  but  died  suddenly  of 
apoplexy  after  leaving  the  king's  cabinet  on  July  16,  1691. 
His  sudden  death  caused  a  suspicion  of  poison,  and  struck 
everybody  with  surprise.  "  He  is  dead,"  writes  Madame 
de  Sevigne',  "  that  great  minister,  that  important  man,  who 
held  so  grand  a  position,  and  whose  Moi  spread  so  far,  who 
was  the  centre  of  so  much."  "  Tell  the  king  of  England," 
said  Louis  the  next  day,  "  that  I  have  lost  a  good  minister, 
but  that  his  affairs  and  mine  will  go  none  the  worse  for 
that."  He  was  very  wrong  ;  with  Louvois  the  organizer  of 
victory  was  gone.  Great  war  ministers  are  far  rarer  than 
great  generals.  French  history  can  only  point  to  Carnot 
as  his  equal,  English  history  only  to  the  elder  Pitt.  The 
comparison  with  Carnot  is  an  instructive  one  :  both  had  to 
organize  armies  out  of  old  material  on  a  new  system,  both 
had  to  reform  the  principle  of  appointing  officers,  both 
were  admirable  contrivers  of  campaigns,  and  both  devoted 
themselves  to  the  material  well-being  of  the  soldiers.  But 
in  private  life  the  comparison  will  not  hold ;  Carnot  was  a 
good  husband,  an  upright  man,  and  a  broad  minded  thinker 
and  politician,  while  Louvois  married  for  money  and  lived 
openly  with  various  mistresses,  most  notoriously  with  the 
beautiful  Madame  de  Courcelles,  used  all  means  to  over 
throw  his  rivals,  and  boasted  of  having  revived  persecution 
in  his  horrible  system  of  the  dragonnades. 

The  principal  authority  for  Louvois's  life  and  times  is  Cainille 
Rousset's  Histoirc  de  Louvois,  4  vols.,  1862-63,  a  gr  at  \vork  founded 
on  the  900  volumes  of  his  despatches  at  the  Depot  de  la  Guerre. 
Saint  Simon  from  his  class  prejudices  is  hardly  to  be  trusted,  but 
Madame  de  Sevigne  throws  many  bright  side-lights  on  his  times. 
Testament  Politiquc  de  Louvois  (1695)  is  spurious. 

LOVAT,  SIMON  FKASER,  BARON,  a  famous  Jacobite 
intriguer,  executed  for  the  part  which  he  took  in  the 
rebellion  of  1745,  was  born  about  the  year  1676,  and  was 
the  second  son  of  Thomas,  afterwards  twelfth  Lord  Lovat. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  there 
seems  reason  to  believe  that  lie  was  there  no  negligent 
student,  as  his  correspondence  afterwards  gives  abundant 
proof,  not  only  of  a  thorough  command  of  good  English 
and  idiomatic  French,  but  of  such  an  acquaintance  with 
the  Latin  classics  as  to  leave  him  never  at  a  loss  for  an  apt 
quotation  from  Virgil  or  Horace.  Whether  Lovat  ever  felt 
any  real  principle  of  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts  or  was  actuated 
throughout  merely  by  what  he  supposed  to  be  self-interest 
it  is  difficult  to  determine,  but  that  he  was  a  born  traitor 
and  deceiver  there  can  be  no  doubt.  One  of  his  first  acts  on 
leaving  college  was  to  recruit  three  hundred  men  from  his 
clan  to  form  part  of  a  regiment  in  the  service  of  William 
and  Mary,  in  which  he  himself  was  to  hold  a  command,— 
his  object  being,  as  he  unhesitatingly  avows,  to  have  a 
body  of  well-trained  soldiers  under  his  influence,  whom  at  a 
moment's  notice  he  might  carry  over  to  the  interest  of  King 
James.  Among  other  wild  outrages  in  which  he  was  engaged 
about  this  time  was  a  rape  and  forced  marriage  committed  on 


the  widow  of  a  previous  Lord  Lovat  with  the  view  appar 
ently  of  securing  his  own  succession  to  the  estates  ;  and  it  is 
a  curious  instance  of  his  plausibility  and  power  of  influenc 
ing  others  that,  after  being  subjected  by  him  to  the  most 
horrible  ill-usage,  the  woman  is  said  to  have  ultimately 
become  seriously  attached  to  him.  A  prosecution  for  his 
violence,  however,  having  been  instituted  against  him  by 
Lady  Lovat's  family,  Simon  found  it  prudent  to  retire  first 
to  his  native  strongholds  in  the  Highlands,  and  afterwards 
to  France,  where  he  at  length  found  his  way  in  July  1702 
to  the  court  of  St  Germains.  One  of  his  first  steps  towards 
gaining  influence  there  seems  to  have  been  to  announce 
his  conversion  to  the  Catholic  faith.  He  then  proceeded 
to  put  the  great  project  of  restoring  the  exiled  family  into 
a  practical  shape.  Hitherto  nothing  seems  to  have  been 
known  among  the  Jacobite  exiles  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
Highlanders  as  a  military  force.  But  Lovat,  who  was  of 
course  well  acquainted  with  their  capabilities,  saw  that,  as 
they  were  the  only  part  of  the  British  population  accus 
tomed  to  the  independent  use  of  arms,  they  could  be  at  once 
put  in  action  against  the  reigning  power.  His  plan  there 
fore  was  to  land  five  thousand  French  troops  atDundee,  where 
they  might  reach  the  north-eastern  passes  of  the  Highlands 
in  a  day's  march,  and  be  in  a  position  to  divert  the  British 
troops  till  the  Highlands  should  have  time  to  rise.  Immedi 
ately  afterwards  five  hundred  men  were  to  land  on  the  west 
coast,  seize  Fort  William  or  Inverlochy,  and  thus  prevent 
the  access  of  any  military  force  from  the  south  to  the  central 
Highlands.  The  whole  scheme  affords  strong  indication  of 
Lovat's  sagacity  as  a  military  strategist,  and  it  is  observable 
that  his  plan  is  that  which  was  continuously  kept  in  view  in 
all  the  future  attempts  of  the  Jacobites,  and  finally  acted  on 
in  the  last  outbreak  of  1745.  The  advisers  of  the  Pretender 
seem  to  have  been  either  slow  to  trust  their  astute  coad 
jutor  or  slow  to  comprehend  his  project.  At  last,  however, 
he  was  despatched  on  a  secret  mission  to  the  Highlands  to 
sound  those  of  the  chiefs  who  were  likely  to  rise,  and  to 
ascertain  what  forces  they  could  bring  into  the  field.  He 
very  soon  found,  however,  that  there  was  little  disposition 
to  join  the  rebellion,  and  he  then  made  up  his  mind  to 
secure  his  own  safety  by  revealing  all  that  he  knew  to  the 
Government  of  Queen  Anne.  Having  by  this  means  ob 
tained  a  pardon  for  all  his  previous  crimes,  he  was  sent 
back  to  France  to  act  as  a  spy  on  the  Jacobites.  On 
returning  to  Paris  suspicions  soon  got  afloat  as  to  his  pro 
ceedings,  and  in  the  end  he  was  committed  close  prisoner  in 
the  castle  of  Angouleme,  where  he  remained  for  nearly  ten 
years,  or  till  November  1714,  when  he  made  his  escape  to 
England.  For  some  twenty-five  years  after  this  he  was 
chiefly  occupied  in  lawsuits  for  the  recovery  of  his  estates 
and  the  re-establishment  of  his  fortune,  in  both  of  which 
objects  he  was  successful.  The  intervals  of  his  leisure  were 
filled  up  by  Jacobite  and  Anti-Jacobite  intrigues,  in  which 
he  seems  to  have  alternately,  as  suited  his  interests,  acted 
the  traitor  to  both  parties.  But  he  so  far  obtained  the 
confidence  of  the  Government  as  to  have  secured  the 
appointments  of  sheriff  of  Inverness  and  of  colonel  of  an 
independent  company.  His  disloyal  practices,  however, 
soon  led  to  his  being  suspected  ;  and  he  was  deprived  of 
both  his  appointments.  When  the  rebellion  of  1745  broke 
out,  Lovat  acted  with  his  characteristic  duplicity.  He  re 
presented  to  the  Jacobites — what  was  probably  in  the  main 
true — that  though  eager  for  their  success  his  weak  health 
and  advanced  years  prevented  him  from  joining  the  standard 
of  the  prince  in  person,  while  to  the  Lord  President  Forbes 
he  professed  his  cordial  attachment  to  the  existing  state 
of  things,  but  lamented  that  Ids  headstrong  son,  in  spite 
of  all  his  remonstrances,  had  insisted  on  joining  tho  Pre 
tender,  and  succeeded  in  taking  with  him  a  strong  force 
from  the  clan  of  the  Erasers.  The  truth  was  that  the  poor 


L  0  V  —  L  O  V 


lad  was  most  unwilling  to  go  out,  but  was  compelled  by  his 
father  to  do  so.  Lovat's  false  professions  of  fidelity  did 
not  of  course  long  deceive  the  Government,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Culloden  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  to  some  of  the 
wildest  recesses  of  the  Highlands,  after  seeing  from  a  distant 
height  his  proud  castle  of  Dounie  delivered  to  the  flames 
by  the  royal  army.  Even  then,  however,  broken  down  by 
disease  and  old  age,  carried  about  on  a  litter  and  unable  to 
move  without  assistance,  his  mental  resources  did  not  fail 
him ;  and  in  a  conference  with  several  of  the  Jacobite 
leaders  "he  proposed  that  they  should  raise  a  body  of  three 
thousand  men,  which  would  be  enough  to  make  their  moun 
tains  impregnable,  and  at  length  force  the  Government  to 
give  them  advantageous  terms.  The  project,  though  by  no 
means  a  chimerical  one,  was  not  carried  out,  and  Lovat, 
after  enduring  incredible  hardships  in  his  wanderings,  was 
at  last  arrested  on  an  island  in  Loch  Morar  close  upon  the 
west  coast.  He  was  conveyed  in  a  litter  to  London,  and 
after  a  trial  of  five  days  sentence  of  death  in  "  the  ordinary 
brutal  form  peculiar  to  England  "  was  pronounced  upon  him 
on  the  19th  of  March  1747.  His  execution  took  place  on 
the  9th  of  April  following.  His  conduct  to  the  last  was 
dignified  and  even  cheerful,— his  humour,  his  power  of 
s  ircasm,  and  his  calm  defiance  of  fate  never  deserting  him. 
Just  before  submitting  his  head  to  the  block  he  repeated 
the  line  from  Horace — 

"  Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori." 
LOVE-BIRD,  a  name  somewhat  indefinitely  bestowed, 
chieHy  by  dealers  in  live  animals  and  their  customers,  on 
some  of  the  smaller  short-tailed  Parrots,  from  the  remark 
able  affection  which  examples  of  opposite  sexes  exhibit 
towards  each  other,  an  affection  popularly  believed  to  be 
so  great  that  of  a  pair  that  have  been  kept  together  in 
captivity  neither  can  long  survive  the  loss  of  its  partner. 
By  many  systematic  ornithologists  the  little  birds  thus 
named,  brought  almost  entirely  from  Africa  and  South 
America,  have  been  retained  in  a  single  genus,  Psittacula, 
though  those  belonging  to  the  former  country  were  by 
others  separated  as  Agapomia,  This  separation,  however, 
was  by  no  means  generally  approved,  and  indeed  it  was 
not  easily  justified,  until  Garrod  (Proc.  Zool.  Society, 
1874,  p.  593)  assigned  good  anatomical  ground,  afforded 
by  the  structure  of  the  carotid  artery,  for  regarding  the 
two  groups  as  distinct,  and  thus  removed  what  had  seemed 
to  be  the  almost  unintelligible  puzzle  presented  by  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  species  of  Psittacula  in  a 
large  sense,  though  Professor  Huxley  (op.  cit.,  1868,  p.  319) 
had  indeed  already  suggested  one  way  of  meeting  the 
difficulty.  As  the  genus  is  now  restricted,  only  one  of  the 
six  species  of  Psittacula  enumerated  in  the  Nomendator 
Avium  of  Messrs  Sclater  and  Salvin  is  known  to  be  found 
outside  of  the  Neotropical  Region,  the  exceptional  instance 
being  the  Mexican  P.  cyanopygia,  and  not  one  of  the 
seven  recognized  by  the  same  authors  as  forming  the  very 
nearly  allied  genus  Urochroma.  On  the  other  hand,  of 
Ayapornis,  from  which  the  so-called  genus  Poliopsitta  can 
scarcely  be  separated,  five  if  not  six  species  are  known, 
all  belonging  to  the  Ethiopian  Region,  and  all  but  one, 
A.  cana  (which  is  indigenous  to  Madagascar,  and  thence 
has  been  widely  disseminated),  are  natives  of  Africa.  In 
this  group  probably  comes  also  Psittinus,  with  a  single 
species  from  the  Malayan  Subregion.  These  Old-World 
forms  are  the  "Love-birds"  proper;  the  others  scarcely 
deserve  that  designation,  and  still  less  do  certain  even 
smaller  Parrots,  the  very  smallest  indeed  of  the  Order 
Psittaci,  included  in  the  genera  Cydopsitta  and  Nasiterna, 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  Australian  Region,  though  on 
•account  of  their  diminutive  size  they  may  here  be  just 
mentioned  by  name,  but  their  real  affinity  remains  to  be 
determined.  (A.  N.) 


LOVELACE,  RICHARD  (1618-1658),  English  poet,  was 
born  in  1618.  On  the  father's  side  he  was  a  scion  of  a 
Kentish  family,  and  inherited  a  tradition  of  military 
distinction,  maintained  by  successive  generations  from  tbe 
time  of  Edward  III.  His  mother's  family  was  legal ;  her 
grandfather  had  been  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer. 
Lovelace's  fame  has  been  kept  alive  by  a  few  songs  and 
the  romance  of  his  career,  and  his  poems  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  careless  improvisations,  and  merely  the 
amusements  of  an  active  soldier.  But  the  unhappy  course 
of  his  life  gave  him  more  leisure  for  verse-making  than 
opportunity  of  soldiering.  Before  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  in  1642  his  only  active  service  was  in  the 
bloodless  expedition  which  ended  in  the  Pacification  of 
Berwick  in  1640.  By  that  time  he  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  company  of  courtly  poets  gathered 
round  Queen  Henrietta,  and  influenced  as  a  school  by 
contemporary  French  writers  of  vers  de  societe.  Lovelace 
had  probably  a  more  serious  and  sustained  poetical  ambi 
tion  than  any  of  them.  He  wrote  a  comedy,  The  Scholar, 
when  he  was  sixteen,  and  a  tragedy,  The  Soldier,  when  he 
was  one  and  twenty.  From  what  he  says  of  Fletcher,  it 
would  seem  that  this  dramatist  was  his  model,  but  only 
the  spirited  prologue  and  epilogue  to  his  comedy  have  been 
preserved.  When  the  rupture  between  king  and  parlia 
ment  took  place,  Lovelace  was  committed  to  the  Gatehouse 
at  Westminster  for  presenting  to  the  Commons  a  petition 
from  Kentish  royalists  in  the  king's  favour.  It  was  then 
that  he  wrote  his  most  famous  song,  "  To  Althaea  from 
Prison."  He  was  liberated  on  bull  of  £40,000, — a  sign 
of  his  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  parliament, — and 
throughout  the  civil  war  was  a  prisoner  on  parole,  with 
this  security  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  His  only  active 
service  was  after  1646,  when  he  raised  a  regiment  for  the 
French  king,  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Dunkirk. 
Returning  to  England  in  1648,  he  was  again  thrown  into 
prison.  During  this  second  imprisonment,  he  collected 
and  revised  for  the  press  a  volume  of  occasional  poems, 
many  if  not  most  of  which  had  previously  appeared  in 
various  publications.  The  volume  was  published  in  1649 
under  the  title  of  Lucasta,  his  poetical  name — contracted 
from  Lux  Casta — for  Lucy  Sacheverell,  a  lady  who  married 
another  during  his  absence  in  France,  on  a  report  that  he 
had  died  of  his  wounds  at  Dunkirk.  The  last  ten  years 
of  Lovelace's  life  were  passed  in  obscurity.  His  fortune 
had  been  exhausted  in  the  king's  interest,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  been  supported  by  the  generosity  of  more  fortunate 
friends.  He  died,  according  to  Aubrey,  '•  in  a  cellar  in 
Longacre."  A  volume  of  Lovelace's  Posthume  Poems  was 
published  in  1659  by  one  of  his  brothers.  They  are  of 
very  inferior  merit  to  his  own  collection. 

The  world  has  done  no  injustice  to  Lovelace  in  neglecting  all  but 
a  few  of  his  modest  offerings  to  literature.  But  critics  often  do  him 
injustice  in  dismissing  him  as  a  gay  cavalier,  who  dashed  off  his 
verses  hastily  and  cared  little  what  became  of  them.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  class  him  with  Suckling  ;  he  has  neither  Suckling's 
easy  grace  nor  his  reckless  spontaneity.  We  have  only  to  compare 
the  version  of  any  of  his  poems  in  Lucasta  with  the  form  in  which 
it  originally  appeared  to  see  how  fastidious  was  his  revision.  In 
many  places  it  takes  time  to  decipher  his  meaning.  The  expression 
is  often  elliptical,  the  syntax  inverted  and  tortuous,  the  train  of 
thought  intricate  and  discontinuous.  These  faults — they  are  not 
of  course  to  be  found  in  his  two  or  three  popular  lyrics,  "  Going  to 
the  Wars,"  "To  Althaea  from  Prison,"  "The  Scrutiny" — are, 
however,  as  in  the  case  of  his  poetical  master,  Donne,  the  faults 
not  of  haste  but  of  over-elaboration.  His  thoughts  are  not  the 
first  thoughts  of  an  improvisatore,  but  thoughts  ten  or  twenty 
stages  removed  from  the  first,  and  they  are  generally  as  closely 
packed  as  they  are  far-fetched.  Lovelace  is  not  named  by  Johnson 
among  the  "metaphysical  poets,"  but  in  elaboration  of  workman 
ship  as  well  as  in  intellectual  force  he  comes  nearer  than  any  other 
disciple  to  the  founder  of  the  school.  His  most  far-fetched  con 
ceits  are  worth  the  carriage,  and  there  is  genuine  warmth  in  them. 
The  wine  of  his  poetry  is  a  dry  wine,  but  it  is  wine,  and  not  an 


L  O  V  —  L  O  W 


21) 


artificial  imitation.  His  career  as  a  dramatist  was  checked  by  the 
suppression  of  the  stage  ;  if  he  had  been  born  thirty  years  earlier  or 
thirty  years  later,  Fletcher  or  Congreve  would  have  had  in  him  a 
powerful  rival.  The  most  recent  edition  of  his  poems  is  that  by 
\V.  C.  Hazlitt,  in  1864. 

LOVER,  SAMUEL  (1797-1868),  novelist,  artist,  song 
writer,  and  musician,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1797.  His 
father  was  a  member  of  the  stock  exchange.  Lover  began 
life  as  an  artist,  and  was  elected  an  academician  of  the 
Royal  Hibernian  Society  of  Arts — a  body  of  which  he 
afterwards  became  secretary.  He  acquired  repute  as  a 
miniature  painter ;  and  a  number  of  the  local  aristocracy 
sat  to  him  for  their  portraits.  His  love  for  music  showed 
itself  at  a  very  early  age.  At  a  dinner  given  to  the  poet 
Moore  in  1818  Lover  sang  one  of  his  own  songs,  which 
elicited  special  praise  from  Moore.  One  of  his  best  known 
portraits  was  that  of  Paganini,  which  was  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  He  attracted  attention  as  an  author  by 
his  Legends  and  Stories  of  Ireland  (1832),  and  was  one  of 
the  first  writers  for  the  Dublin  University  Magazine.  He 
went  to  London  about  1835,  where,  among  others,  he 
painted  Lord  Brougham  in  his  robes  as  lord  chancellor. 
His  varied  gifts  rendered  him  very  popular  in  society ; 
and  he  appeared  often  at  Lady  Blessington's  evening 
receptions.  There  he  sang  several  of  his  songs,  which 
were  so  well  received  that  he  published  them  (Songs 
and  Ballads,  1839).  Some  of  them  illustrated  Irish 
superstitions,  among  these  being  "Rory  O'More,"  "The 
Angel's  Whisper,"  "The  May  Dew,"  and  "The  Four- 
leaved  Shamrock."  In  1837  appeared  Rory  O'More,  a 
National  Romance,  which  at  once  made  him  a  great 
reputation  as  a  novelist ;  he  afterwards  dramatized  it  for 
the  Adelphi  Theatre,  London.  In  1842  was  published  his 
best  known  work,  Handy  Andy,  an  Irish  Tale.  Mean 
while  his  multifarious  pursuits  had  seriously  affected  his 
health;  and  in  1844  he  gave  up  writing  for  some  time, 
substituting  instead  public  entertainments,  called  by  him 
"Irish  Evenings,"  illustrative  of  his  own  works  and  his 
powers  as  a  musician  and  composer.  These  were  very 
successful  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  America.  In 
addition  to  publishing  numerous  songs  of  his  own,  Lover 
edited  a  collection  entitled  The  Lyrics  of  Ireland,  which 
appeared  in  1858.  He  died  on  July  6,  1868.  Lover 
was  remarkable  for  his  versatility ;  but  his  fame  rests 
mainly  on  his  songs  and  novels  ;  the  latter  are  full  of 
sunny  Irish  humour,  and  teem  with  felicitous  pictures  of 
national  life.  Besides  those  already  mentioned  he  wrote 
Treasure  Trove  (1844),  and  Metrical  Tales  and  Other 
Poems  (1860). 

LOWELL,  the  twenty-seventh  city  in  population  of  the 
United  States,  in  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Concord  and  Merrimack  rivers,  26  miles 
north-west  from  Boston.  It  is  often  called  the  "  Spindle 
City,"  and  the  "  Manchester  of  America,"  because  of  the 
extent  of  its  cotton  manufacture.  The  principal  source  of 
its  water-power  is  Pawtucket  Falls  in  the  Merrimack,  and 
steam  is  employed  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  amount  of  19,793 
horse-power.  The  first  cotton-mill  was  started  in  1823, 
when  the  place  was  the  village  of  East  Chelmsford.  In 
1826  it  was  made  a  town,  and  named  Lowell  in  memory, 
of  Francis  Cabot  Lowell,  from  whose  plans  it  had  been 
developed,  but  who  died  in  1817.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  city  in  1836.  It  originally  comprised  2885  acres,  but 
by  annexation  from  neighbouring  towns  its  area  has  been 
increased  to  7615  acres,  or  11 '8  square  miles.  The  popu 
lation,  which  in  1836  was  17,633,  was  40,928  in  1870,  and 
59,485  in  1880  (males,  26,855  ;  females,  32,630),  and  in 
1882  was  estimated  at  64,000. 

The  following  table  shows  the  extent  of  the  principal 
manufacturing  companies  in  1882  : — 


Company. 

Estab 
lished. 

Looms. 

Spindles. 

Opera 
tives. 

Yards  per 
Week. 

Merrimack  

1823 

4  267 

153  552 

3  300 

947  000 

Hamilton  

1825 

1  597 

59  816 

1  387 

364  000 

Appleton  

1828 

1  228 

45'  ooo 

820 

285  000 

Lowell  

1828 

392 

24  750 

1  700 

48  000 

Middlesex  ... 

1830 

250 

18  640 

836 

25  000 

Tremont  and  Suffolk.. 
Lawrence  

1832 
1833 

2,700 
2  360 

94^000 
100  000 

1,500 
2  130 

550,000 
425  000 

Booth  

1836 

3  600 

127*000 

1  875 

650  000 

Massachusetts  

1840 

3  658 

119  598 

1  717 

907  000 

The  capital  invested  is  $17,300,000  ;  number  of  mills, 
153;  spindles,  806,000;  looms,  20,521;  females  employed, 
12,809  ;  males,  9750  ;  yards  per  year,  cotton  209,056,000, 
woollen  8,335,000,  carpetings  2,700,000;  shawls,  350,000  ; 
hosiery  per  year,  13,695,520  pairs;  cotton  consumed 
annually,  34,087  tons;  clean  wool,  11,750,000  Ib ;  yards 
cotton  dyed  and  printed,  97.240,000 ;  coal  consumed, 
80,000  tons.  There  are  many  secondary  industries  con 
nected  with  the  cotton  manufacture,  including  the  making 
of  machinery,  elastic  and  leather  goods,  tools,  boilers,  &c., 
and  also  a  number  of  small  factories  for  the  production 
of  cartridges,  chemicals,  wire  cloth,  paper,  doors,  sashes, 
blinds,  and  carriages.  The  Lowell  machine-shop  employs 
1400  men  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  and  consumes 
9800  tons  of  iron  and  steel  annually.  Lowell  has  90 
public  day  schools,  6  evening  and  4  technical  schools,  a 
reform  school,  and  2  parochial  schools.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  city-hall,  court-house,  Middlesex 
county  jail,  Green  school-house,  and  St  John's  Hospital. 
There  are  7  national  banks  with  a  total  capital  of 
$2,500,000,  and  6  savings  banks  with  deposits  of 
$11,000,000.  The  religious  congregations  number  35,  all 
but  three  of  which  own  their  places  of  worship.  The  two 
largest  Roman  Catholic  churches,  St  Patrick's  and  the 
Church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  are  among  the 
finest  in  the  State.  Seven  railroads  connect  Lowell  with 
the  railroad  system  of  the  country.  The  benevolent 
institutions  include  a  home  for  young  women  and  children, 
and  one  for  aged  women,  2  orphanages,  and  3  hospitals. 
There  are  2  reading-rooms,  5  daily  newspapers  (one 
French),  6  weeklies,  and  4  public  libraries.  Lowell  was 
early  famed  for  the  high  character  of  its  operatives,  who 
for  some  years  published  a  periodical  of  considerable 
literary  merit  called  The  Loivdl  Offering,  which  was,  ib 
is  believed,  the  only  publication  of  the  kind  ever  sustained 
by  workpeople.  Many  of  the  young  women  rose  to 
positions  of  prominence  in  American  society,  and  at  least 
one,  Miss  Lucy  Larcom,  is  known  to  readers  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  by  her  contributions  to  leading  magazines. 

In  1843  Charles  Dickens  visited  the  place,  and  devoted 
a  chapter  of  his  American  Notes  to  its  praise.  The 
manufacturers  have  from  the  first  provided  for  the  moral 
and  social  as  well  as  the  physical  wellbeing  of  their 
operatives,  so  that  labour  troubles  have  been  exceedingly 
rare  in  Lowell.  The  corporation  boarding-houses  are 
model  dwellings  for  the  workpeople.  The  first  blood 
shed  in  the  American  civil  war  was  that  of  two  Lowell 
young  men,  Luther  C.  Ladd  and  A.  O.  Whitney,  who  were 
killed  by  a  rnob  while  their  regiment  was  passing  through 
the  streets  of  Baltimore,  on  the  way  to  the  defence  oi 
Washington,  April  19,  1861.  In  their  honour  a  granite 
monument  has  been  erected  in  Merrimack  Street,  and  in 
the  same  enclosure  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Victory  by  the 
German  sculptor  Rauch  to  commemorate  the  triumph  of 
the  Northern  cause. 

The  assessed  valuation  in  May  1881  was  $42,785,434 
an  increase  of  $3,108,035  since  1879);  the  net  debt 
December  31,  1881,  was  $1,992,868,  of  which  $1,565,539 
was  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  water  in  1873. 


30 


L  0  A Y  —  L  0  Y 


Lowell  is  divided  into  six  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  a  board  of  eight  aldermen,  and  a  common  council 
of  twenty-four  members. 

LOWESTOFT,  a  watering-place,  seaport,  and  market- 
town  of  Suffolk,  England,  is  picturesquely  situated  ou  a 
lofty  declivity,  which  includes  the  most  easterly  point  of 
land  in  England,  23  miles  south-west  of  Norwich  by  rail. 
Previous  to  the  opening  of  a  railway,  it  was  only  a  small 
fishing  village,  but  since  then  it  has  risen  to  some 
importance  as  a  seaport,  while  its  picturesque  situation, 
and  its  facilities  for  sea-bathing,  have  rendered  it  a 
favourite  watering-place.  The  church  of  St  Margaret,  in 
the  Later  English  style,  with  tower  and  spire,  possesses  a 
very  ancient  font.  There  are  a  town-hall,  a  county-hall, 
two  foundation  schools,  a  large  general  hospital,  and  a 
number  of  charities.  Along  the  shore  there  is  a  fine 
esplanade,  and  a  new  park  was  opened  in  1874.  Two 
piers  1300  feet  in  length  enclose  a  harbour  of  20  acres, 
which  is  much  used  as  a  harbour  of  refuge.  For  the  last 
five  years  the  average  value  of  the  foreign  and  colonial 
imports  has  been  over  £100,000,  and  the  exports  have 
been  valued  at  about  £5000.  The  fisheries  of  Lowestoft 
are  of  some  importance,  and  there  are  shipbuilding  yards, 
oil  and  flour  mills,  and  rope-works.  The  population  of  the 
urban  sanitary  district  in  1871  was  15,246,  and  in  1881 
it  had  increased  to  19,597. 

LOWICZ,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  on  the  Bzura  river, 
in  the  government  of  Warsaw,  54  miles  by  rail  west  from 
the  capital,  on  the  line  between  Skiernewice  and  Bromberg. 
It  has  lately  become  a  centre  of  manufacture  and  trade, 
and  the  population  (6650  in  1872)  is  rapidly  increasing. 
Its  fairs  are  important  as  regards  the  trade  in  horses  and 
cattle.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  are  situated 
the  hamlet  Liczcowice,  which  has  a  beetroot  sugar  factory, 
and  the  rich  estates  Nieboron  and  Villa  Arcadia  of  the 
Radziwill  family. 

LOWTH,  ROBERT  (1710-1787),  bishop  of  London,  was 
born  at  Buriton,  Hampshire,  or,  according  to  other  authori 
ties,  in  the  Close  of  Winchester,  on  November  27,  1710. 
He  was  the  younger  son  of  Dr  William  Lowth  (1661-1732), 
rector  of  Buriton,  a  man  of  considerable  learning,  author 
of  A  Vindication  of  the  Divine  Authority  and  Inspiration 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (1692),  Directions  for  the 
Profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (1708-26),  and 
A  Commentary  on  the  Prophets  (4  vols.,  1714).  Robert 
was  educated  on  the  foundation  of  Winchester  College,  and 
in  1730  was  elected  to  a  scholarship  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1737.  In 
1741  he  was  appointed  professor  of  poetry,  and  it  was  in 
this  capacity  that  he  delivered  the  Praelectiones  Academics^ 
de  Sacra  Poesi  Hebreeorum,  afterwards  published  in  1753. 
Bishop  Hoadly  appointed  him  in  1744  to  the  rectory  of 
Ovington,  Hampshire,  in  1750  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Winchester,  and  in  1753  to  the  rectory  of  East  Woodhay, 
also  in  Hampshire.  In  1754  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  divinity  from  his  university,  and  in  the  follow 
ing  year  he  went  to  Ireland  along  with  the  duke  of 
Devonshire,  then  lord-lieutenant,  as  first  chaplain.  Soon 
afterwards  he  declined  a  presentation  to  the  see  of  Limerick, 
but  accepted  a  prebendal  stall  at  Durham  and  the  rectory 
of  Sedgfield.  In  1758  he  published  his  Life  of  William 
of  Wykeham,  which  was  followed  in  1762  by  A  Short 
Introduction  to  English  Grammar.  In  1765,  the  year  of 
his  election  into  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and 
Gb'ttingen,  he  engaged  in  a  hot  war  of  pamphlets  with 
Warburton  on  a  now  obsolete  question  about  the  relations 
between  the  book  of  Job  and  the  Mosaic  economy  ;  and 
(Gibbon  being  judge),  "  whatsoever  might  be  the  merits 
of  an  insignificant  controversy,  his  victory  was  clearly 
established  by  the  silent  confession  of  Warburton  and  his 


slaves."  In  June  1766  Lowth  was  promoted  to  the  see  of 
St  David's,  whence  about  four  months  afterwards  he  was 
translated  to  that  of  Oxford,  where  he  remained  till  1777, 
when  he  became  bishop  of  London.  This  last  appoint 
ment  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death,  having  declined 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  in  1783.  In  1778  ap 
peared  his  last  work,  Isaiah,  a  new  Translation,  ivith  a 
Preliminary  Dissertation,  and  Notes,  Critical,  Philologi 
cal,  and  Explanatory.  He  died  at  Fulham  on  November 
1787. 

The  Prselcdiones  exercised  a  great  influence  both  in  England  and 
on  the  Continent.  Their  chief  importance  lay  in  the  idea  of  look 
ing  at  the  sacred  poetry  as  poetry,  and  examining  it  by  the  stand 
ards  applied  to  profane  literature.  Lowth's  aesthetic  criticism  was 
that  of  the  age,  and  is  now  in  great  part  obsolete,  a  more  natural 
method  having  been  soon  after  introduced  by  Herder.  The  prin 
cipal  point  in  which  Lowth's  influence  has  been  lasting  is  his 
doctrine  of  poetic  parallelism,  and  even  here  his  somewhat  mechani 
cal  classification  of  the  forms  of  Hebrew  sense-rhythm,  as  it  should 
rather  be  called,  is  open  to  serious  objections.  The  Preelcctiones 
reached  a  second  edition  in  1763,  and  were  republished  with  notes 
by  J.  D.  Michaelis  in  1770;  both  text  and  notes  were  translated  by  G. 
Gregory  (1787  ;  4th  ed.,  1839).  The  Oxford  edition  of  the  original 
(1821)  'contains  additions  by  Rosenmiiller,  Richter,  and  Weiss. 
The  editions  of  Lowth's  Isaiah  have  been  numerous  (13th  ed.,  1842), 
but  the  book  is  now  much  less  read  than  the  Prselcctioncs.  A  vol 
ume  of  Sermons  and  other  Remains,  with  memoir  by  Hall,  was 
published  in  1834,  and  there  is  a  comparatively  recent  edition  of  the 
Popular  Works  of  Robert  Lowth,  3  vols.,  1843. 

LOYALTY  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  South  Pacific, 
about  60  miles  east  of  New  Caledonia,  consisting  of  Uvea 
or  Uea  (the  northrnost),  Lifu,  Toka  and  several  small 
islands,  and  Mare  or  Nengone.  They  are  coral  islands  of 
comparatively  recent  elevation,  and  in  no  place  rise  more 
than  250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Lifu,  the  largest, 
is  about  50  miles  in  length  by  25  in  breadth.  Enough  of 
its  rocky  surface  is  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  soil  to 
enable  the  natives  to  grow  yams,  taro,  bananas,  &c.,  for 
their  support ;  cotton  thrives  well,  and  has  even  been  ex 
ported  in  small  quantities,  but  there  is  no  space  available 
for  its  cultivation  on  any  considerable  scale.  Fresh  water, 
rising  and  falling  with  the  tide,  is  found  in  certain  large 
caverns,  and,  in  fact,  by  sinking  to  the  sea-level  a  supply 
may  be  obtained  in  any  part  of  the  island.  The  popula 
tion,  about  7000,  is  on  the  decrease.  The  island  called 
Neugone  by  the  natives  and  Mare  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Isle  of  Pines  is  about  80  miles  in  circumference,  and 
contains  about  6000  souls.  Uvea,  the  most  recent  part  of 
the  group,  consists  of  a  circle  of  about  twenty  islets  enclos 
ing  a  lagoon  20  miles  in  width ;  the  largest  is  about  30 
miles  in  length,  and  in  some  places  3  miles  wide,  and  the 
next  largest  is  about  12  miles  in  length.  The  inhabitants, 
numbering  about  2500,  export  considerable  quantities  of 
cocoa-nut  oil. 

The  Loyalty  islanders  are  classed  as  Melanesian  ;  the  several 
islands  have  each  its  separate  language,  and  in  Uvea  the  one  tribe 
uses  a  Samoan  and  the  other  a  New  Hebridean  form  of  speech. 
Captain  Cook  passed  to  the  east  of  New  Caledonia  without  observ 
ing  the  Loyalty  group  ;  but  it  was  discovered  soon  afterwards,  and 
Dumont  D'Urville  laid  down  the  several  islands  in  his  chart.  For 
many  years  after  their  discovery  the  natives  had  a  bad  repute  as 
dangerous  cannibals.  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Mare  by 
native  teachers  from  Rarotonga  and  Samoa  ;  missionaries  were 
settled  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  at  Mare  in  1854,  at 
Lifu  in  1859,  and  at  Uvea  in  1865  ;  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
also  arrived  from  New  Caledonia;  and  in  1864  the  French,  con 
sidering  the  islands  a  dependency  of  that  colony,  formally  insti 
tuted  a  commandant.  An  attempt  was  made  by  this  official  to  put 
a  stop  to  the  English  missions  by  violence  ;  but  the  report  of  his 
conduct  led  to  so  much  indignation  in  Australia  and  in  England 
that  the  emperor  Napoleon,  on  receipt  of  a  protest  from  Lord 
Shaftesbury  and  others,  caused  a  commission  of  inquiry  to  be  ap 
pointed,  and  free  liberty  of  worship  to  be  secured  to  the  Protestant 
missions.  A  new  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Uvea,  during 
1875,  called  forth  a  protest  on  the  part  of  the  English  Government, 
and  matters  appear  to  have  since  improved. 

See  W.  Gill,  Gems  from  the  Coral  Islands,  new  edition.  1871; 
S.  Macfarlane,  Story  of  the  Lifu  Mission,  1873. 


L  O  Y  — L  U  B 


31 


LOYOLA,  IGNATIUS  DE,  ST.  Inigo,  the  youngest  son 
of  Beltrau  de  Loyola,  was  born  in  1491  at  the  castle  of 
Loyola,  the  family  seat,  situated  on  the  river  Urola,  about 
a  mile  from  the  town  of  Azpeitia,  in  the  province  of 
Guipuzcoa,  Spain.  He  died  at  Rome  on  July  31,  1556, 
was  beatified  by  Paul  V.  in  1609,  and  canonized  along 
with  Francis  Xavier  by  Gregory  XV.  on  March  13,  1623, 
the  bull  being  published  by  Urban  VII L  on  August  6. 
His  festival  (duplex)  is  observed  on  July  31.  See  JESUITS. 

LOZERE,  a  department  of  south-eastern  France,  but 
belonging  to  the  great  central  plateau,  is  composed  of 
almost  the  whole  of  Ge'vaudan  and  of  some  parishes  of  the 
old  dioceses  of  Alais  and  Uzes,  districts  all  formerly 
included  in  the  province  of  Languedoc.  It  lies  between 
44°  6'  and  44°  58'  1ST.  lat.,  and  between  2°  58'  and  4°  E. 
long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.W.  by  Cantal,  on  the  N.E. 
by  Haute-Loire,  on  the  E.  by  Ardeche,  on  the  S.E.  by 
Gard,  and  on  the  S.W.  by  Aveyrou,  having  an  extreme 
length  of  65  miles,  an  extreme  breadth  of  50,  and  an  area 
of  1996  square  miles.  Lozere  is  mountainous  throughout, 
and  its  average  elevation  makes  it  the  highest  of  all  the 
French  departments.  It  has  three  distinct  regions — the 
Ceveunes  to  the  south-east,  the  "  causses "  to  the  south 
west,  and  the  mountain  tracts  which  occupy  the  rest.  The 
Cevennes,  forming  the  watershed  between  the  Garonne 
and  Loire  basins  to  the  west  and  that  of  the  Rhone  to  the 
east,  begin  (within  Loz6re)  with  Mount  Aigoual,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  more  than  5100  feet;  parallel  to  this 
are  the  mountains  of  Bouges,  a  range  between  the  rivers 
Tarn  and  Tarnon,  bold  and  bare  on  its  southern  face,  but 
falling  gently  away  with  wooded  slopes  toward  the  north. 
To  the  north  of  the  Tarn  is  the  range  of  Lozere,  including 
the  peak  of  Finiels,  the  highest  point  of  the  department 
(5584  feet).  Further  on  occurs  the  broad  marshy  plateau 
of  Montbel,  from  which  the  water  drains  southward  to  the 
Lot,  northwards  to  the  Allier,  eastward  by  the  Chassezac  to 
the  Ardeche.  From  this  plateau  extend  the  mountains  of 
La  Margeride,  a  long  series  of  undulating  granitic  table 
lands  partly  clothed  with  woods  of  oak,  beecb,  and  fir, 
and  partly  covered  with  pastures,  to  which  the  flocks 
are  brought  up  from  lower  Languedoc  in  summer.  The 
highest  point  (Mount  de  Randon)  is  5098  feet.  Adjoin 
ing  the  Margeride  hilh  on  the  west  is  the  volcanic  rang;; 
of  Aubrac,  an  extensive  pastoral  district  where  horned 
cattle  take  the  place  of  sheep ;  the  highest  point  is 
4826  feet.  The  "  causses  "of  Lozere,  having  an  area  of 
about  483  square  miles,  consist  of  extensive  calcareous 
tracts,  fissured  and  arid,  but  separated  from  each  other 
by  deep  and  well-watered  gorges,  whose  freshness  and 
beauty  are  in  pleasant  contrast  with  the  desolate  aspect 
of  the  plateaus.  The  "causse"  of  Sauveterre,  between 
the  Lot  and  the  Tarn,  ranges  from  3000  to  3300  feet 
in  height ;  that  of  Mejean  has  nearly  the  same  average 
altitude,  but  has  peaks  some  1000  feet  higher.  Between 
these  two  "causses"  the  Tarn  flows  through  a  series  of 
landscapes  which  are  among  the  most  picturesque  and 
grand  in  France.  The  Lot  and  the  Tarn,  the  two  most 
important  tributaries  of  the  Garonne,  both  have  their 
sources  in  this  department,  as  also  have  the  Allier,  the 
two  Gardons,  which  unite  to  form  the  Gard,  the  Ceze,  and 
the  Chassezac  with  its  affluent  the  Altier.  The  climate 
of  Lozere  varies  greatly  with  the  locality.  The  mean 
temperature  of  Mende,  the  capital,  is  below  that  of  Paris ; 
that  of  the  mountains  is  always  low,  but  in  the  "  causses" 
the  summer  is  scorching  and  the  winter  severe ;  in  the 
Cevennes  the  climate  becomes  mild  enough  at  their  base 
(656  feet)  to  permit  the  growth  of  the  olive.  Rain  falls 
in  violent  storms,  causing  disastrous  floods.  On  the 
Mediterranean  versant  there  are  78'7  inches,  in  the  Garonne 
basin  45 '5,  and  in  that  of  the  Loire  only  27 '95.  The 


general  character  of  the  department  is  pastoral ;  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  arable  land  ;  91,500  acres 
are  meadow,  155,700  wood,  and  90,000  chestnut  plantation. 
The  number  of  sheep  (which  is  doubled  in  summer)  is 
300,000  ;  there  are  50,000  head  of  cattle  ;  and  pigs,  goats, 
horses,  asses,  and  mules  are  also  reared.  Bees  are  also 
kept,  and,  among  the  Cevennes,  silkworms.  The  export 
of  chestnuts  from  the  Cevennes  is  considerable.  Rye  is 
the  chief  cereal;  but  oats,  wheat,  meslin,  barley,  and 
many  potatoes  are  also  grown.  Great  care  is  bestowed  on 
cultivation  in  the  valleys  adjoining  the  Ardeche ;  fruit 
trees  and  leguminous  plants  are  irrigated  by  small  canals 
("  be"als ")  on  terraces  which  have  been  made  or  are 
maintained  with  much  labour.  The  department  yields 
argentiferous  lead  (Villefort),  slates,  and  mineral  waters, 
among  which  those  of  Bagnols  are  most  frequented.  The 
exportation  of  its  antimony,  manganese,  marble,  and 
lithographic  stones  is  undeveloped  as  yet.  The  tufa  o.f 
Mende  is  well  adapted  for  building  purposes.  The  manu 
factures  are  unimportant.  The  population  in  1876  was 
138,319,  having  decreased  by  5000  since  1801,  and  by  a 
still  greater  number  since  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
There  are  about  20,000  Protestants.  The  arrondissem'ents 
are  three  (Mende,  Florae,  and  Marvejols),  the  cantons 
twenty-four,  and  the  communes  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
six.  ..  * 

LUBECK,  a  free  city  of  Germany,  situated  in  53°  52' 
N.  lat.  and  10°  41'  E.  long.,  on  a  gentle  ridge  between  the 
rivers  Trave  and  "Wakeriitz,  10  miles  S.W.  of  the  mouth  of 
the  former,  and  40  miles  by  rail  N.E.  of  Hamburg.  Old 
Liibeck,  the  chief  emporium  of  the  Slav  inhabitants  of 
Wagria  (East  Holstein),  stood  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Trave, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  river  Schwartau,  arid  was  ulti- 


1.  Pitching  Yard. 

2.  Citadel. 

3.  Tivoli. 

4.  "  Chimborasso  "  Tower. 

5.  Custom  House. 

G.  St  James's  Church. 


Plan  of  Liibeck. 


7.  Hospital  zum  Heiligen 

Geist. 

8.  St  Catharine's  Churc1'. 

9.  St  Mary's  Church. 

10.  Exchange. 

11.  Town-Hall. 


12.  St  Peter's  Church. 

13.  Church  of  St  ^Egidius. 

14.  Church  of  St  Anne. 

15.  Orphanage. 

16.  Cathedral. 


mately  destro  ed  in  1138.  Five  years  later  Count  Adol- 
phus  II.  of  Holstein  founded  new  Liibeck,  a  few  miles 
farther  up,  on  the  peninsula  Buku,  where  the  deep  current 
of  the  Trave  is  joined  on  the  right  by  the  Wakenitz,  the 
broad  emissary  of  the  Lake  of  Ratzeburg.  A  most  excel 
lent  harbour,  well  sheltered  against  pirates,  it  became 
almost  at  once  a  successful  competitor  for  the  commerce  of 


32 


the  Baltic.     Its  foundation  coincided  with  the  beginning  of 
the  general  advance  of  the  Low  German  tribes  of  Flanders, 
FriesLind,  and  Westphalia  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
great    inland    sea, —  the    second    great    emigration    of   the 
colonizing  Saxon  element.     In  1140  Wagria,  in  1142  the 
country  of   the  Polabes  (Ratzeburg  and  Lauenburg),  had 
been  annexed  by  the  Holtssetas  (the  Transalbingian  Saxons). 
From  11G6  onwards  there  was  a  Saxon  count  at  Schwerin. 
Frisian  and  Saxon  merchants  from  Soest,  Bardewieck,  and 
other  localities  in  Lower  Germany,  who  already  navigated 
the  Baltic  and  had  their  factory  in  the  distant  isle  of  Goth 
land,  settled  in  the  new  town,  where  Wendish  speech  and 
customs   never  entered.      About   1157    Henry   the   Lion, 
duke  of  Saxony,  forced  his  vassal,  the  count  of  Holstein, 
to  give  up  Liibeck ;  and  in  1163  he  removed  thither  the 
tottering  episcopal  see  of  Oldenburg  (Stargard),  founding 
at  the  same  time  the  dioceses  of  Ratzeburg  and  Schwerin. 
He  issued  the  first  charter  to  the  citizens,  and  deliberately 
constituted  them  a  free  Saxon  community  having  its  own 
magistrate,  an  inestimable  advantage  over  all  other  towns 
of  his  dominions.     He  invited  the  traders   of  the  towns 
and  realms  of  the  north  to  visit  his  new  market  free  of  toll 
and  custom,  provided  his  subjects  were  promised  similar 
privileges  in  return.      From  the  very  beginning  the  king 
of  Denmark  granted  them  a  settlement  for  their  herring 
fishery  on  the  coast  of  Schoonen.      Adopting  the  statutes 
of   Soest   in  Westphalia   as  their   code,  Saxon  merchants 
exclusively  ruled  the  city.     In  concurrence  with  the  duke's 
reeve  they  recognized  only  one  right  of  judicature  within 
the  town,  to  which  nobles  as  well  as  artisans  had  to  submit. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  population  grew  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  influence  by  land  and  sea,  so  that,  when  Henry 
was  attainted  by  the  emperor,  who  had  come  in  person  to 
besiege  Ltibeck,   Barbarossi,   "in  consideration   of   its  re 
venues  and  its  situation  on  the  frontier  of  the  empire,"  fixed 
by  charter,  dated  September  19,  1188,  the  limits,  and  en 
larged  the  liberties,  of  the  free  town.     Evil  times,  however, 
were  in  store  when  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  became  more 
and  more  involved  in  its  Italian  projects.       In  the  year 
1201  Liibeck  was  conquered  by  Waldernar  II.  of  Denmark, 
who  prided  himself  on  the  possession  of  such  a  city.     But 
in  1223  it  regained  its  liberty,  after  the  king  had  been 
taken  captive  by  the  count  of  Schwerin.     In  1226  it  was 
incorporated  as  an  independent  city  of  the  empire  by  Fre 
derick.  II.,  and  took  an  active  part  with  the  enemies  of  the 
Danish  king  in  the  victory  of  Yornho'vd,  1227.    The  citizens, 
distinguished  by  the  firmness  and  wisdom  with  which  they 
pursued  their  objects,  and  fully  conscious  that  they  were 
the  pioneers  of  civilization  in  the  barbarian  regions  of  the 
north-east,  repelled  the  persistent  encroachments  of  their 
dynastic  neighbours  alike  in  Holstein  and  in  Mecklenburg. 
On  the  other  hand  their  town,  being  the  principal  emporium 
of  the  Baltic  by  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  acted  as 
the  firm  ally  of  the  Teutonic  knights  in  Livonia.     Genera 
tion  after  generation  of  crusaders  embarked  to  found  new 
cities  and  new  sees  of  Low  German  speech  among  alien 
and  pagan  races;  and  thus  in  the  course  of  a  century  the 
commerce  of  Liibeck  had  fully  supplanted  that  of  West 
phalia.     In  close  connexion  with  the  Germans  at  Wisby, 
the  capital  of  Gothland,  and  at  Riga,  where  they  had  a 
house  from  1231,  the  people  of  Liibeck  with  their  armed 
vessels  scoured  the  sea  between  the  Trave  and  the  Neva. 
They  were  encouraged  by  papal  bulls  in  their  brave  contest 
for  the  rights  of  property  in  wrecks,  and  for  the  protection 
of  shipping  against  pirates  and  slave-hunters.      Before  the 
close  of  the  century  the  statutes  of  Liibeck  were  adopted 
by  most  Baltic  towns  having  a  German  population,  and 
Wisby  raised  her  protest  in  vain  that  the  city  on  the  Trave 
had  become  the  acknowledged  court  of  appeal  for  nearly 
all  these  cities,  and  even  for  the  German  settlement  in 


Russian  Novgorod.  In  course  of  time  more  than  a  hun 
dred  places  were  embraced  in  this  relation,  the  last  vestiges 
of  which  did  not  disappear  until  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century.  Hitherto  only  independent  merchants, 
individual  Westphalian  and  Saxon  citizens,  had  flocked 
together  at  so  many  out-lying  posts.  From  about  1299 
Liibeck  presided  over  a  league  of  cities,  Wismar,  Rostock, 
Stralsund,  Greifswald,  and  some  smaller  ones,  commonly 
called  the  Wendish  towns.  A  Hansa  of  towns  became 
heir  to  a  Hansa  of  traders  simultaneously  on  the  eastern 
and  the  western  sea,  after  Liibeck  and  her  confederates 
had  besn  admitted  to  the  same  privileges  with  Cologne, 
Dortmund,  and  Soest  at  Bruges  and  in  the  Steelyards 
of  London,  Lynn,  and  Boston.  Such  progress  of  civic 
liberty  and  federal  union  held  its  own,  chiefly  along  the 
maritime  outskirts  of  the  empire,  rather  against  the  will 
of  king  and  emperor.  Nevertheless  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg 
and  several  of  his  successors  issued  new  charters  to  Liibeok. 
Charles  IV.,  who,  like  his  son  after  him,  deliberately  opposed 
all  confederacies  of  the  Franconian  and  Swabian  towns  in 
Upper  Germany,  surrendered  to  the  municipal  government 
of  Liibeck  the  little  that  remained  of  imperial  jurisdiction 
by  transferring  to  them  the  chief  responsibility  for  preserving 
the  public  peace  within  the  surrounding  territories.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  citizens,  like  independent  members 
of  the  empire,  stood  valiantly  together  with  their  sister 
towns  against  encroaching  princes,  or  joined  the  princes 
against  the  lawless  freebooters  of  the  nobility.  As  early 
as  1241  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and  Soest  had  combined  to 
secure  their  common  highways  against  robber  knights. 
Solemn  treaties  to  enforce  the  public  peace  were  concluded 
in  1291  and  1338  with  the  dukes  of  Brunswick,  Mecklen 
burg,  and  Pomerania,  and  the  counts  of  Holstein.  From 
Liibeck  families,  the  descendants  of  Low  German  immigrants 
with  a  certain  admixture  of  patrician  and  even  junker  blood, 
arose  a  number  of  wise  councillors,  keen  diplomatists,  and 
brave  warriors  to  attend  almost  incessantly  the  many  diets 
of  the  league,  to  decide  squabbles,  petty  or  grave,  of  its 
members,  to  interfere  with  shrewd  consistency  when  the 
authorities  in  Flanders,  or  king  and  parliament  in  England, 
touched  their  ancient  commercial  privileges,  to  take  the 
command  of  a  fleet  against  the  kings  of  Norway  or 
Denmark.  Though  the  great  federal  armament  against 
Waldernar  IV.,  the  destroyer  of  Wisby,  was  decreed  by  the 
city  representatives  assembled  at  Cologne  in  1367,  Liibeck 
was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  war  which  ended  with  the 
surrender  of  Copenhagen  and  the  glorious  peace  concluded 
at  Stralsund  on  24th  May  1370.  Her  burgomaster,  Brun 
Warendorp,  who  commanded  in  person  the  combined  naval 
and  land  forces,  died  bravely  in  harness.  In  1368  the  seal 
of  the  city,  a  double-headed  imperial  eagle  (which  in  the 
14th  century  took  the  place  of  the  more  ancient  ship), 
was  expressly  adopted  as  the  common  seal  of  the  con 
federated  towns  (civitates  maritimss),  some  seventy  of  which 
had  united  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  strife.  By  and  by, 
however,  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  the  power  of 
the  Hanseatic  League  began  slowly  to  decline,  owing  to  the 
rise  of  Burgundy  in  the  west,  of  Poland  and  Russia  in  the 
east,  and  the  emancipation  of  the  Scandinavian  kingdom 
from  the  fetters  of  the  union  of  Calmar.  Still  Liibeck, 
even  when  nearly  isolated,  strove  manfully  to  preserve  its 
predominance  in  a  war  with  Denmark  (1501-12),  sup 
porting  Gustavus  Vasa  in  Sweden,  lording  it  over  the 
north  of  Europe  during  the  years  1534  and  1535  in  the 
person  of  Jiirgen  Wullenwever,  the  democratic  burgomaster, 
who  professed  the  most  advanced  principles  of  the 
Reformation,  and  engaging  with  Sweden  in  a  severe  naval 
war  (1563-70).  Before  the  end  of  the  century  the  old 
privileges  of  the  London  Steelyard  were  definitely 
suppressed  by  Elizabeth.  As  early  as  1425  the  regular 


LUBECK 


33 


shoals  of  herring,  a  constant  source  of  early  wealth,  began 
to  forsake  the  Baltic  waters.  Later  on,  by  the  discovery 
of  a  new  continent,  general  commerce  was  diverted  into 
new  directions.  Finally,  with  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  mis 
fortunes  and  ruin  came  thick.  The  last  Hanseatic  diet  met 
at  Liibeck  in  1630,  shortly  after  Wallenstein's  unsuccessful 
attack  on  Stralsund;  and  from  that  time  merciless  sovereign 
powers  stopped  free  intercourse  on  all  sides.  Danes  and 
Swedes  battled  for  the  possession  of  the  Sound  and  its 
heavy  dues.  The  often  changing  masters  of  Holstein  and 
Lauenburg  abstracted  much  of  the  valuable  landed  property 
of  the  city  and  of  the  chapter  of  Liibeck.  Still,  towards  the 
end  of  the  18th  century,  there  were  signs  of  improvement. 
Though  the  Danes  temporarily  occupied  the  town  in  1801, 
it  preserved  its  freedom  and  gained  some  of  the  chapter 
lands  when  the  imperial  constitution  of  Germany  was 
broken  up  by  the  Act  of  February  25,  1803.  Trade  and 
commerce  prospered  marvellously  for  a  few  years.  But  in 
November  1806,  when  General  Bliicher,  retiring  from  ths 
catastrophe  of  Jena,  had  to  capitulate  in  the  vicinity  of 
Liibeck,  the  town  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  enemy. 
Napoleon  annexed  it  to  the  empire  in  December  1810. 
But  it  rose  against  the  French,  March  19,  1813,  was 
reoccupied  by  them  till  the  5th  December,  and  was 
ultimately  declared  a  free  and  Hanse  town  of  the  German 
Confederation  by  the  Act  of  Vienna,  June  9,  1815.  The 
Hanseatic  League,  however,  having  never  been  officially 
dissolved,  Liibeck  still  enjoyed  its  traditional  connexion 
with  Bremen  and  Hamburg.  In  1853  they  sold  their 
common  property,  the  London  Steelyard.  Till  1866  they 
enlisted  by  special  contract  their  military  contingents  for 
the  German  Confederation.  Down  to  the  year  1879  they 
had  their  own  court  of  appeal  at  Liibeck.  The  town, 
however,  joined  the  Prussian  Customs  Union  as  well  as  the 
North  German  Union  in  1866,  profiting  by  the  final  retire 
ment  from  Holstein  and  Lauenburg  of  the  Danes,  whose 
interference  had  prevented  as  long  as  possible  a  direct 
railroad  between  Liibeck  and  Hamburg. 

Liibeck  through  many  changes  in  the  course  of  eight  centuries 
has  preserved  its  republican  government.  At  the  first  rise  of 
the  town,  justice  was  administered  to  the  inhabitants  by  the  vogt 
(reeve)  of  the  count.  Simultaneously  with  the  incorporation  by 
Henry  the  Lion,  who  presented  the  citizens  with  the  privileges 
of  mint,  toll,  and  market  of  their  own,  there  appears  a  magistracy 
of  six  persons,  elected  probably  by  the  reeve  from  the  schoffcn 
(scabini,  probi  homines).  The  members  of  the  town  council  had 
to  be  freemen,  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  in  the  enjoyment  of  free 
property,  and  of  unstained  repute.  Vassals  or  servants  of  any 
lord  and  tradespeople  were  excluded.  A  third  of  the  number  had 
annually  to  retire  for  a  year,  so  that  two-thirds  formed  the  sitting, 
the  other  third  the  reposing  council.  By  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen 
tury  there  were  two  burgomasters  (magistri  burgensium,  mayistri 
civium,  proconsuks).  Meanwhile  the  number  of  magistrates  (con- 
sides)  had  largely  increased,  but  was  indefinite,  ranging  from  twenty 
to  fort}'  and  upwards.  The  council  appointed  its  own  officers  in 
the  various  branches  of  the  administration, — chancellor,  chaplain, 
surgeon,  stadcsscrivcre  (recorders),  notaries,  secretaries,  marshal,  con 
stable,  keeper  of  the  ordnance,  messengers,  watchmen.  In  the  face 
of  so  much  self-government  the  vogt  by  and  by  vanished  completely. 
He  is  by  no  means  to  be  confounded  with  the  rector,  a  neighbouring 
prince,  whom  the  Liibeckers  occasionally  adopted  as  their  honorary 
guardian.  There  were  three  classes  of  inhabitants — full  freemen, 
half  freemen,  guests  or  foreigners.  People  of  Slav  origin  being 
considered  unfree,  all  intermarriage  with  them  tainted  the  blood. 
Hence  nearly  all  surnames  point  to  Saxon,  especially  "Westphalian, 
and  even  Flemish  descent. 

Since  the  end  of  the  13th  century  the  city  has  been  entered  by 
the  same  gates  and  traversed  by  the  same  streets  as  at  the  present 
day.  Stately  churches  of  the  Gothic  order  in  glazed  brick  rose 
slowly, — last  not  least  St  Mary's  or  Die  Rnthslcirche  close  to  the 
Rathhaus  (town-hall)  and  the  spacious  market-place  with  its  long 
rows  of  booths  and  the  pillory.  Within  its  precincts  is  the 
Horn  (cathedral)  dedicated  to  St  Nicholas,  the  patron  saint  of 
navigators ;  in  Protestant  times  down  to  1803  the  secularized 
chapter  was  generally  presided  over  by  a  prince  of  the  ducal 
house  of  Gottorp.  There  were  magnificent  convents  of  the  Domi 
nicans,  the  Franciscans,  and  the  nuns  of  St  Clara.  The  population, 


when  the  city  and  the  Hansa  were  in  full  power  about  1400,  can 
scarcely  have  been  under  80,000.      But  such  prosperity  was  not 
obtained  by  foreign  commerce  alone,  though  this  was  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  upper  classes  : — the  Junker  or  Zirkel  company, 
a   sort   of  patriciate   (since    1379)  ;   the   merchant   company,  also 
patricians,   but   mostly    "rentiers";   the    "nations"  of  the   Ber- 
gcnfahrcr,   Schonenfahrcr,   Xovgoroclfahrer,  Rigafahrcr,  Stockholm- 
fahrer.     From  the  very  beginning  various  tradespeople  and  handi 
craftsmen  had  settled  in  the  town,  all  of  them  freemen,  of  German 
parentage,  and  with  property  and  houses  of  their  own.     Though 
not  eligible  for  the  council,  they  shared  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  self-government   through   the   aldermen   of  each   corporation 
(amt,    oth'eium,    guild),    of  which   some   appear   as   early  as   the 
statutes  of  1240,  and  many  more  arise  and  disappear  in  course  of 
time  under  authority  of  the  council  and  the  guidance  of  certain 
police  magistrates  (wcttchcrren).     A  number  still  exist,  and  own 
their  old  picturesque  gable  houses.    The  rolls  of  nearly  all  have  been 
kept  most  carefully.     Naturally  there  arose  much  jealousy  between 
the  guilds  and  the  aristocratic  companies,  which  exclusively  ruled 
the  republic.     After  an  attempt  to  upset  the  merchants  had  been 
suppressed  in  13S4,  the  guilds  succeeded  under  more  favourable  cir 
cumstances  in  1408.     The  old  patrician  council  left  the  city  to 
appeal  to  the  Hansa  and  to  the  imperial  authorities,  while  a  new 
council,  elected  chiefly  from  the  guilds,  with  democratic  tenden 
cies,  took  their  place.     In  1416,  however,  there  was  a  complete 
restoration,  owing  to  the  interference  of  the  confederated  cities  and 
of  two  kings  of  the  Romans,  Rupert  and  Sigismund.     The  aristo 
cratic  government  was  expelled  a  second  time  when  democracy  and 
religious  sectarianism  got  the  upper  hand  under  the  dictatorship  of 
Wullenwever,  till  the  old  order  of  things  was  once  more  re-i  stab- 
lished  in  1535.     Nevertheless  the  mediaeval  church  had  been  finally 
supplanted  by  the   Lutheran  Reformation,   and  the  tendency  to 
increase  the  political  privileges  of  the  commonalty  appeared  again 
and  again.     In  the  constitution  of  1669,  under  the  pressure  of  a 
great  public  debt,  the  seven  upper  companies  yielded  to  (8)  the 
Gcwandsclmcidcr  (merchant  tailors),  (9)  the  grocers,  (10)  the  brewers, 
(11)  the  mariners,  and  (12)  the  combined  four  great  guilds,  viz., 
the  smiths,  bakers,  tailors,  and  shoemakers,  a  specified  share  in  the 
financial  administration.     Nevertheless  they  continued  to  choose 
the  magistrates  by  co-optation  among  themselves.     Three  of  the 
four  burgomasters  and  two  of  the  senators,  however,  henceforth  had 
to  be  graduates  in  law.     Their  constitution,  set  aside  only  during 
the  French  ascendency,  has   subsequently  been  slowly  reformed. 
From  1813  senatorial  and  civic  deputies  joined  in  the  administration 
of  an  annual  budget  of  income,  expenditure,  and  public  debt.     But 
the  reform  committee  of  1814,  of  which  the  object  was  to  substitute 
for  the  rule  of  the  old  companies  a  wider  participation   of  the 
citizens  in  their  common  affairs  (most  of  the  learned  professions, 
many  proprietors,  and  the  suburban  population  being  without  any 
representation),   had  made  very  little  progress,  when   under  the 
pressure  of  the  events  of  the  year  1848  a  representative  assembly 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  members,  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
obtained  a  place  beside  the  senatorial  government.     By  the  consti 
tution  of  the  29th  December  1851  the  senate,  for  which  all  citizens 
above  thirty  years   of  age  are   eligible,   has  at  present   fourteen 
members.     Eight  must  be  taken  from  the  learned  professions,  of 
whom  six  have  to  be  lawyers,  while  of  the  rest  five  ought  to  be 
merchants.     Every  second  year  the  offices  and  departments  are  re 
distributed,    to   be   in   most   cases   administered   conjointly   with 
deputies  of  the  assembly.     The  president  of  the  senate,  chosen  for 
two  years,  retains  the  old  title  of  burgomaster.     The  members  of 
the  assembly,  which  participates  in  all  public  affairs,  are  elected  for 
six  years,  and  must  be  summoned  at  least  six  times  a  year,  while  a 
committee  of  thirty  members  meets  every  fortnight  simultaneously 
with  the  periodical  sessions  of  the  senate.     These  truly  democratic 
institutions  have  been  scarcely  at  all  modified  by  the  resuscitation 
of  the  German  empire  under  the  king  of  Prussia.     But  evidently 
the    ancient    republic   has   lost   some   important   attributes   of   a 
sovereign  state  by  giving  up  its  own  military  contingent,  its  right 
of  levying  customs,  its  coinage,  its  postal  dues,  its  judicature,  to 
the  new  national  empire.     On  the  other  hand,  it  has  preserved  its 
municipal  self-government  and  its  own  territory,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  now  enjoy  equal  political  privileges  with  the  citizens. 
The  territory,  of  about  5^  German  square  miles  (116  Eng.  sq.  m.), 
partly  extends  towards  the  mouth  of  the  river  Trave,  where  the 
borough  of  Travemiinde  has  been  the  property  of  Liibeck  since 
1329,  and  partly  consists  of  numerous  villages,  manors,  farms,  and 
corn,  pasture,  and  forest  lands  scattered  over  the  adjoining  portions 
of  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg.    The  manor  and  borough 
of  Bergedorf  on  the  Elbe,  1£  German  square  miles,  long  held  by 
Lubeck  in  common  with  Hamburg,   was  ceded  to  the  latter  by 
treaty  of  1st  July  1867.     The  lands  which  remain  to  Liibeck  are 
thinly  peopled,  for,  according  to  the  census  of  1875,  of  the  total 
of  56,912  inhabitants  44,799    lived  in  Lubeck  itself.     The  vast 
majority,    55,693,   are  Lutheran   Protestants,   whose   service  con 
tinues  in  the  magnificent  city  churches,  the  cathedral,  two  parishes 
at  Travemiinde,  and  the  four  country  parishes.     A  celebrated  high 

XV.  —  5 


34 


L  U  B  — L  U  B 


school  (gymnasium)  is  situated  in  the  spacious  buildings  of  St 
Catharine,  formerly  the  house  of  the  Franciscans.  The  charitable 
institutions  enjoy  a  large,  well-administered  property,  chiefly  the 
lands  of  the  monastery  of  St  John  and  the  hospital  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Since  1789  there  has  existed  a  "  Gesellschaft  zur  Befb'r- 
derung  Gemeinniitziger  Thatiglceit, "  with  a  branch  union  for  the 
history  and  the  antiquities  of  Liibeck,  which  has  collected  a  valu 
able  museum  and  promotes  important  historical  publications,  the 
materials  of  which  are  kept  in  the  most  unique  municipal  archives 
in  existence.  The  income  and  expenditure  of  the  Liibeck  budget 
of  1881  balance  with  2,739,382  marks;  the  public  debt  amounts 
to  23,804,913  marks. 

The  manufactures  of  the  town  are  numerous,  but  not  large  or  im 
portant  (woollen,  linen,  cotton,  and  silk  goods,  leather  wares,  hard 
ware,  tobacco,  and  preserves).  The  commerce,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  considerable,  the  chief  exports  being  corn,  cattle,  wool,  timber, 
and  iron  ;  while  wines,  silks,  cottons,  hardware,  colonial  products, 
and  dye-stuffs  are  imported.  There  is  regular  steamship  communi 
cation  with  Copenhagen  and  the  Baltic  ports,  and  four  lines  of 
railway  converge  in  Liibeck.  Since  the  deepening  of  the  Trave 
(1850-54)  sea-going  ships  can  come  up  to  Liibeck  itself;  formerly 
they  required  to  unload  at  Travemiinde.  In  1878  the  local  ship 
ping  of  Liibeck  amounted  to  46  vessels  of  .10,223  aggregate  tonnage 
(27  steamers,  1504  horse-power,  6463  tons).  In  1877  2302  vessels 
(981  steamers)  with  a  tonnage  of  301,910  entered,  and  2332  vessels 
(979  steamers)  with  a  tonnage  of  307,567  cleared  the  port. 

See  Codex  Diplomatics  Lubecensi*,  6  vols.,  1843-81  ;  C.  W.  Pauli,  Liibeckisclie 
Zustcinde  zum  Anfang  des  vienehnten  Jahrhunderts,  1847;  Waitz,  Liibeck  unter 
Jiirgen,  Wullenwever,  3  vols.,  18.55,  1856  ;  W.  Hansel's  "  Liibeck,"  in  Bluntsclili 
nnd  Prater,  Deutsches  Staafsiforterbuch,  iv.  p.  731 ;  Wehrmann,  Die  d'tercn 
Liibeck  schen  Zunftrolle.n,  1S72  ;  D.  Schafer,  Die  Hansestadte  nnd  f'onig  Wa'de- 
mar  von  Danemark,  1879.  (R.  P.) 

LUBLIN,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  capital  of  the 
province  of  same  name,  60  miles  south-east  of  Warsaw,  on 
the  Bistrzyca,  a  tributary  of  the  Wieprz.  It  is  the  most 
important  town  of  Poland  after  Warsaw  and  Lodz.  It 
has  an  old  citadel,  many  churches,  and  several  educational 
and  charitable  institutions,  and  it  is  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
Lublin  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  manufacture  of 
thread-yarn  and  of  linen  and  hemp  goods  (to  the  value  of 
more  than  £250,000),  as  well  as  of  woollen  stuffs:  there 
is  also  an  active  trade  in  corn  and  cattle.  The  three 
annual  fairs  have  a  certain  importance  for  the  neighbouring 
district.  The  population  in  1873  was  28,900,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing. 

The  date  of  the  foundation  of  Lublin  is  unknown,  but  it  was  in 
existence  in  the  10th  century,  and  has  a  church  which  is  said  to 
have  been  built  in  986.  During  the  time  of  the  Jagellons  it  was 
the  most  important  city  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Dnieper,  hav 
ing  40,000  inhabitants  (70,000  according  to  other  authorities),  and 
keeping  in  its  hands  all  the  trade  with  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and 
Red  Russia.  Indeed,  the  present  town  is  surrounded  with  heaps  of 
ruins,  which  prove  that  it  formerly  covered  a  much  larger  area. 
But  it  was  frequently  destroyed  by  the  inroads  of  Tartars  and 
Cossacks.  In  1568  and  1569  it  was  the  seat  of  the  stormy  con 
vention  at  which  the  union  between  Poland  and  Lithuania  was 
decided.  In  1702  another  convention  was  held  in  Lublin,  in 
favour  of  Augustus  II.  and  against  Charles  XII.,  who  carried  the 
town  by  assault,  giving  it  over  to  his  army  to  be  plundered,  and 
stayed  for  six  weeks  at  Jacobowice,  the  estate  of  Prince  Lubomirsky, 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  In  1831  Lublin  was  taken  by 
the  Russians  after  a  battle.  The  whole  surrounding  country  is 
rich  in  historical  reminiscences  of-  the  struggle  of  Poland  for  inde 
pendence. 

LUBRICANTS  are  fluids  which  are  interposed  between 
solid  machine  surfaces  that  a'c  required  to  slide  on  each 
other.  The  object  is  to  lessen  the  friction,  which  is 
injurious  both  in  wearing  away  the  surfaces,  and  thus 
destroying  the  fit  between  them,  and  in  dissipating  and 
rendering  useless  pirt  of  the  energy  transmitted  through 
the  machine.  The  difference  between  the  wear  on 
unlubricated  and  that  on  lubricated  surfaces  is  so  serious 
that  a  comparison  b2tween  the  cost  of  lubrication  and  the 
money  saving  in  avoidance  of  repairs  is  superfluous.  But 
the  difference  in  wear  when  two  different  lubricants  are 
used  is  not  very  great,  and  the  proper  choice  between  the 
two  lubricants  depends  on  a  comparison  of  their  cost  with 
the  amount  of  working  power  they  save  from  dissipation. 
If  the  price  of  oil  per  gallon,  inclusive  of  wages  for  its 
application  to  the  journals,  &c.,  be  p ;  if,  in  order  to 


lubricate  as  well  as  can  be  done  with  this  oil  any  one 
working  surface  or  set  of  such  surfaces,  .it  is  necessary  to 
use  the  fraction  g  of  a  gallon  of  oil  per  hour  ;  if,  with  the 
use  of  this  quantity  of  the  oil,  there  is  still  wasted  in 
friction  at  these  surfaces  H  horse-power;  and  if  the  cost 
in  fuel,  water,  wages,  repairs,  &c.,  of  the  working  energy 
is  P  per  hour  per  horse-power  ;  then  the  money  loss  per 
hour  caused  by  the  friction  is  py  +  PR.  By  comparing 
the  values  of  this  quantity  for  two  oils,  it  can  be  determined 
which  it  is  more  advantageous  to  use.  Of  the  commonly 
used  oils,  the  higher  priced  are  much  more  efficient  as 
lubricants.  If  two  oils  of  which  the  same  amount 
requires  to  be  used  have  the  prices  p^  and  p2,  and 
allow  I^  and  H2  horse-power  to  be  wasted,  then  the 
money  advantage  to  be  gained  per  hour  by  using 
the  first  (the  higher  priced)  rather  than  the  second  is 
P(H2  -  H1)  -  (pl  —  p.^y.  This  is  positive  if 


If  this  inequality  is  found  not  to  be  true  in  any  special 
comparison,  then  the  cheaper  oil  should  be  used.  P  varies 
from  fd.  to  over  IJd.,  according  to  the  class  of  engine  and 
boiler  and  to  the  good  or  bad  management  of  the  works, 
while  pl  —  p2,  in  comparing  the  extremes  of  cheap  and 
expensive  commercial  lubricants,  amounts  to  2s.  6d.  or 
more. 

To  compare  the  advantages  of  using  a  larger  or  smaller 
amount  of  the  same  oil,  let  gl  and  g0  be  the  quantities 
used,  and  the  resulting  wastes  of  horse-power  be  Ht  and 
H2.  Then  the  use  of  the  larger  quantity  yl  will  be 
economical  if 


P(H2  -  H,)  -p(fjl  -g.2)>0-   or 


Considering  the  meaning  of  this  inequality  in  the  two 
cases  of  a  high-priced  and  of  a  low-priced  oil,  in  the 

former  case  —  has  a  larger  value,  while  -  -  -  -  has  also  a 

J*  ffl-ff'2 

larger  value  than  in  the  latter  case.  In  both  cases  this 
latter  fraction  decreases  with  increase  of  ffl  ;  but  it  de 
creases  more  rapidly  in  the  case  of  a  high-priced  than  in 
that  of  a  low-priced  oil,  because  the  former  is  a  better 
lubricator.  Thus  with  the  dearer  oil  the  limit  beyond 
which  it  is  uneconomical  to  increase  the  consumption  of 
oil  is  reached  sooner  than  with  the  cheaper,  and  it  follows 
that  of  the  cheaper  oils  it  is  best  to  use  a  large  quantity, 
while  of  the  dearer  a  smaller  amount  is  what  is  most  use 
fully  employed.  If  the  law  according  to  which  H  varies 
with  g  be  found  for  any  oil,  by  experiment  or  otherwise, 
then  the  exact  most  economical  quantity  can  be  found  by 
differentiating  pg  4-  PH  with  respect  to  g,  and  equating  the 
differential  coefficient  to  zero  ;  thus 


dTL 


dR 
dg" 


when  —  is  expressed  in  terms  of  </,  gives  this  most  econo 
mical  value  of  g.  An  example  of  the  actual  values  of  the 
quantities  involved  in  these  formulas  is  given  by  an 
experiment  by  Van  Cleve  on  a  journal  G  inches  in  diameter 
by  7  inches  long,  in  which  the  coefficient  of  friction  was 
found  to  be  about  '077,  and  there  was  wasted  3 -4  horse 
power  when  '023  of  a  gallon  was  used  per  hour. 

Of  the  animal  oils  and  fats  suitable  for  lubrication  those 
commonly  used  are  sperm,  lard,  neats-foot,  tallow,  and 
common  whale  oil.  Of  vegetable  oils  olive,  cotton-seed, 
and  rape-seed  are  extensively  employed,  the  first  mostly  in 
those  countries  where  the  olive  is  grown,  and  generally  in 
the  pure  condition,  while  the  last  two  are  more  used  for 
mixing  with  higher  class  and  more  expensive  oils.  Various 
full  oils  are  also  much  used,  and  mineral  oils  now  form  a 


LUBRICANTS 


35 


large  proportion  of  the  many  lubricating  compositions  that 
are  in  use.  For  machinery  where  considerable  pressure  is 
exerted  between  the  bearing  surfaces  the  mineral  oils  are 
too  thin,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  are  too  wanting  in  "  body  "  to 
be  quite  suitable  without  being  mixed  with  an  animal  or 
vegetable  oil.  Unless  a  lubricant  has  considerable  "  body  " 
it  is  quickly  pressed  out  of  the  bearing,  and  an  unnecessarily 
rapid  supply  has  to  be  provided.  The  same  oil  may  be 
used  several  times  over,  and  several  ingenious  designs  of 
bearings  for  rotating  shafts,  such  as  Player  Brothers'  or 
Taylor  &  Challen's,  whereby  the  shaft  itself  as  it  runs 
round  continually  pumps  up  again  to  the  top  of  the  bearing 
the  oil  that  has  once  been  used,  have  been  very  successful 
in  practice.  If  an  automatic  arrangement  of  this  sort  is 
not  employed,  the  oil  dripping  from  the  bearing  should  be 
collected  in  a  pan  and  used  again  to  fill  the  oil-cups.  The 
oil  gets  gradually  worn  out  as  a  lubricant  by  becoming 
filled  with  dirt,  partly  the  dust  of  the  atmosphere  and 
partly  the  minute  iron  and  brass  dust  that  is  continually 
rubbed  off  the  bearing  surfaces.  Oils  that  have  been  used 
two  or  three  times  can  be  to  a  certain  extent  repurified  by 
washing  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  or  potash  and 
chloride  of  calcium  in  boiling  water.  But  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  with  repurification  an  oil  may  be  used  an 
indefinite  time  as  a  lubricant.  A  large  portion  of  it  is 
actually  evaporated  by  the  heat  caused  by  the  friction  at 
the  journal,  and  the  unevaporated  portion  seems  to  undergo 
some  chemical  change  injurious  to  its  lubricating  properties. 
Vegetable  oils  are  peculiarly  rich  in  volatile  constituents, 
and  it  is  this  fact  probably,  even  more  than  the  greater 
cheapness  of  mineral  oils,  that  has  Jed  to  the  largely  in 
creased  use  of  the  latter  in  the  lubrication  of  machinery. 

The  quality  of  an  oil  may  be  tested  by  chemical  analysis  ; 
by  measurement  of  density  and  viscosity ;  by  observation 
of  the  temperature  necessary  for  ignition  in  the  atmo 
sphere,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  "  flashing  "  temperature ;  by 
observation  of  the  succession  of  figured  patterns  produced 
when  a  single  drop  of  the  oil  is  let  fall  upon  the  surface  of 
pure  water  in  a  clean  dish ;  by  the  measurement  of  the 
temperatures  to  which  a  journal  rises  when  running  at 
different  speeds  and  under  different  pressures,  and  when 
supplied  with  a  given  amount  of  the  lubricant  per  minute ; 
and  by  the  measurement  of  the  coefficient  of  friction  at  the 
same  journal  with  varying  speeds  of  rotation  and  pressures. 
The  last  two  methods  of  test  are  the  most  interesting  and 
directly  useful  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view,  i.e., 
considering  the  oil  as  a  lubricant  simply. 

The  machine  designed  and  used  by  Professor  Thurston  of  the 
Stevens  Institute  of  technology  is  the  best  that  has  yet  been  con 
structed  to  carry  out  these  tests.  In  it  a  spindle  is  revolved  in 
horizontal  bearings  by  a  belt  from  the  main  shaft  of  the  workshop 
of  the  Institute.  On  the  overhanging  end  of  this  spindle  is  formed 
a  journal  from  which  is  hung  a  heavily-weighted  rod.  The  bear 
ings  in  this  rod  by  which  it  hangs  on  the  journal  are  of  brass,  and 
the  two  halves  are  pressed  down  upon  the  journal  with  any  desired 
pressure  by  me;ms  of  a  spiral  spring  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  rod. 
The  weight  of  this  pendulum  prevents  it  revolving  along  with  the 
spindle,  but  the  friction  at  the  journal  deflects  the  pendulum  from 
the  vertical  through  an  angle  whose  sine  is  a  measure  of  the  fric- 
tional  effort.  There  is  also  inserted  in  the  bearings  a  thermometer 
by  which  the  effect  of  the  friction  in  increasing  the  temperature  is 
observed.  With  this  machine  Professor  Thurston  has  obtained 
extremely  interesting  results  regarding  the  variation  of  the  coeffi 
cient  of  friction  with  temperature,  pressure,  and  velocity  of  rubbing. 
These  are  summar.zed  as  follows.  With  great  intensity  of  pressure 
and  low  velocity,  the  friction  increases  as  the  temperature  is  raised; 
but  for  each  low  velocity  the  rate  of  increase  of  friction  with  tem 
perature  becomes  slower  as  the  pressure  diminishes,  and  becomes 
zero  at  a  certain  limit  of  pressure  which  is  higher  the  higher  the 
velocity  is.  With  high  velocities  the  variation  of  friction  with 
temperature  is  in  the  opposite  direction  within  the  limits  of  pressure 
commonly  used.  Again  at  a  given  temperature  and  a  given  pres 
sure  the  friction  first  decreases  very  rapidly  with  increase  of  velocity, 
and  then  above  a  certain  limit  of  velocity  increases  again  slowly 
with  further  increase  of  velocity.  The  limit  of  velocity  at  which 


the  direction  of  variation  changes  from -negative  to  positive  does 
not  appear  to  depend  on  the  intensity  of  pressure,  but  the  change 
occurs  at  much  lower  velocity -limits  with  low  than  with  high  tem 
peratures.  Thirdly,  with  a  given  temperature  and  a  given  velocity 
the  coefficient  of  friction,  i.e.,  the  ratio  of  friction  to  normal  pres 
sure,  at  first  decreases  rapidly  with  increase  of  pressure  at  low 
pressures,  and  then  at  higher  pressures  increases  again  with  the 
pressure.  This  law  seems  to  hold  for  all  temperatures  and  all 
velocities  ;  but  how  the  limit  of  pressure  at  which  the  variation 
changes  in  direction  is  altered  by  alteration  of  temperature  and 
velocity  is  not  as  yet  certainly  determined. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  variation  of  friction  at  lubricated  journals 
is  extremely  complicated,  and  has  no  resemblance  to  the  simple  law 
of  constant  proportionality  between  the  friction  and  the  normal 
pressure  which  until  lately  was  commonly  believed  to  hold  good  for 
unlubricated  fiat  surfaces.  This  simple  law  is  really  true  for  many 
unlubricated  surfaces  and  through  a  tolerably  wide  range  of  con 
ditions,  but  is  not  true  for  all  such  surfaces,  or  under  all,  and 
especially  extreme,  conditions  of  pressure,  velocity,  and  temperature. 

Professor  Thurston  has  endeavoured  to  represent  these  results  in 
algebraic  formulas,  but  the  number  of  his  experiments  seems  hardly 
sufficient  to  establish  any  general  mathematical  law  which  will  be 
true  under  all  circumstances,  and  the  particular  formulae  which  he 
has  adopted  give  values  differing  very  considerably  from  those  given 
by  some  of  his  experiments. 

The  friction  at  a  lubricated  journal  depends  really  much  more  on 
the  viscosity  of  the  lubricant  than  on  the  frictional  properties  of 
either  of  the  solids,  which  never  come  in  contact  when  the  lubri 
cation  is  carefully  attended  to.  The  layer  of  oil  immediately  in 
contact  with  either  solid  probably  does  not  move  at  all  relatively  to 
the  solid.  The  rubbing,  therefore,  in  all  probability  takes  place 
between  two  surfaces,  or  rather  between  an  indefinitely  large  num 
ber  of  pairs  of  surfaces,  pf  oil.  The  viscosity  of  the  oil,  which 
hinders  this  relative  motion,  is,  however,  very  likely  affected  by  the 
adhesive  force  between  the  solid  and  liquid  surfaces,  because, 
especially  if  the  intensity  of  bearing  pressure  be  great  and  the  film 
of  lubricant  consequently  very  thin,  some  at  least  of  the  liquid 
motion  will  take  place  within  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  cohesive 
forces. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  order  to  secure  economy  in  the 
use  of  lubricants  to  maintain  the  supply  to  each  journal  at  a  con 
stant  uniform  rate.  To  effect  this,  numberless  "automatic  lubri 
cators"  have  been  invented.  The  common  syphon  oil-cup  is  very 
efficient  so  long  as  the  rate  of  working  is  steady ;  but  the  supply 
does  not  automatically  vary  with  the  requirements.  The  "  needle  " 
lubricator  allows  the  oil  to  How  down  to  the  journal  through  a  small 
straight  tube  in  which  is  placed  a  wire  which  nearly  blocks  up  the 
tube.  When  the  wire  is  motionless  the  dimensions  of  the  space 
between  the  wire  and  the  tube  are  capillary,  and  no  oil  flows.  When 
the  shaft  runs,  however,  its  surface  scraping  on  the  end  of  the  wire 
throws  it  into  continual  vibration,  and  this  allows  a  slow  stream  of 
oil  to  pass  downwards  which  is  automatically  regulated  in  accordance 
with  the  speed  of  revolution.  The  necessity  of  very  perfect  lubrica 
tion  of  the  cylinders  of  gas  engines,  which  run  at  a  high  speed  and  at 
a  high  temperature,  has  led  to  the  adoption  by  Messrs  Crossley 
Brothers  of  an  extremely  neat  and  perfect  arrangement.  A  small 
crank  on  the  end  of  a  spindle,  driven  at  a  rate  proportional  to  that  of 
the  engine,  has  suspended  from  the  crank  pin  a  short  wire  pendulum. 
At  the  lower  part  of  the  revolution  this  pendulum  dips  into  a  basin 
of  oil  and  lifts  a  drop  from  it.  In  the  upper  half  of  the  circular 
motion,  the  wire  is  dragged  over  a  little  scraper  extending  over  the 
open  mouth  of  a  pipe.  This  scrapes  the  drop  off  the  pendulum,  and 
the  drof>  falls  from  the  scraper  into  the  tube,  along  which  it  flows  to 
the  surface  to  be  lubricated.  The  number  of  drops  is  thus  accu 
rately  proportioned  to  the  speed  of  the  engine,  and  the  size  of  drop 
can  be  varied  by  using  smaller  or  larger  wire  for  the  pendulum. 

Table  of  Coefficients  of  Friction  on  Oast-Iron  Journals  at  Tempera 
ture,  70°  F,  and,  Velocity  750  Feet  per  Minute  {from  Thurston}. 


Name  of  Oil. 

Pressure  in  Ib  per  sq.  in. 

8. 

16. 

32. 

48. 

Natural  Summer  Sperm  

•17 
•25 
•19 
•20 
•24 
•22 
•18 
•17 
•21 
•18 
•25 
•23 
•26 

•16 
•14 
•16 
•14 
•16 
•16 
•15 
•16 
•14 
•16 
•12 
•17 
•18 

•10 
•09 
•12 
•11 
•14 
•12 
•09 
•17 
•12 
•12 
•10 
•13 
•13 

•12 
•08 
•10 
•09 
•10 
•11 
•12 
•09 
•11 
•11 
•12 
•17 
•22 

„        Winter         „      
Bleached     ,,              „      

Winter  Laid  

Extra  Neatsfoot  

Tnllow  

Olive  

Refined  Cotton  Seed  

Rape  Seed  

Menhaden  

KeroMnc  

Paraffin  

Other  mineral  oils  than  the  kerosine  and  paraffin  give  a  smaller 
coefficient.  For  mineral  oils  generally  the  lowest  coefficient  appears 
to  occur  at  from  30  to  40  Ib  pressure  per  square  inch.  The  supply 


L  U  C  — L  U  G 


of  oil  in  the  experiments  was  intermittent,  and  must  have  been  in 
sufficient  for  the  best  lubrication. 

Table  of  Coefficients  of  Friction  Ictivccn  Steel  Journals  and  Bronze 
Bearings  lubricated  with  Sperm  Oil,  and  run  at  different  Pres 
sures,  Velocities,  and  Temperatures  (from  Thurston). 


Tempera 
ture, 
Degrees 
Fahr. 

Velocity  in  feet  per  minute. 

30. 

100. 

250. 

500. 

1200. 

Press.  Ib  per 
sq.  in. 

Press.  Ib  per 
sq.  in. 

Press.  Ib 
per  sq.  in. 

Press.  Ib 
per  sq.  in. 

Press.  Ib 
pertq.  in. 

200. 

100. 

50. 

4. 

200. 

100. 

50. 

4. 

200. 

100. 

•003 
•003 
004 
005 

200. 

100. 

200. 

100. 

150 
130 
110 
90 

•050 
•016 
•010 
005 

•025 
•005 
•004 
•003 

•012 
•007 
•006 
•004 

•125 
•125 
•094 
•094 

•014 
•008 
•004 
•004 

•002 
•002 
•002 
•002 

•003 
•003 
•003 
•003 

•063 
•063 
•063 
•063 

•005 
•005 
•005 
•007 

•005 
•005 
•00t> 
•007 

•004 
•004 
•005 
•006 

•006 
•006 
•007 
010 

•006 
•007 
•009 
•015 

The  journal  upon  which  the  above  results  were  obtained  was  1| 
inches  in  diameter  and  1^  inches  long.  With  a  larger  journal  the 
results  would  probably  not  be  exactly  the  same.  (K.  H.  S.*) 

LUCAN".  MARCUS  ANN^EUS  LUCANUS,  the  most  emi 
nent  Roman  poet  of  the  silver  age,  grandson  of  the 
rhetorician  Seneca  and  nephew  of  the  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Corduba,  November  3,  39  A.D.  His  father,  Lucius 
Annaeus  Mela,  had  amassed  great  wealth  as  imperial  pro 
curator  for  the  province.  In  a  memoir  by  an  anonymous 
grammarian,  who  may  have  abridged  Suetonius,  Lucan  is 
said  to  have  been  taken  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  eight  months, 
to  have  displayed  remarkable  precocity,  and  to  have  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  Nero  by  overcoming  him  in  a  poetical 
contest.  The  latter  statement  seems  to  be  founded  upon 
a  misapprehension  of  a  passage  in  Statius's  Genethliacon 
Lucani ;  but  it  is  certain  that  Nero,  whether  from  j  ealousy, 
as  Tacitus  affirms,  or  on  account  of  the  republican  spirit  of 
Lucan's  poetry,  forbade  him  to  recite  in  public,  and  that 
his  indignation  made  him  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Piso,  65  A.D.  Upon  the  discovery  of  the  plot  he  is 
alleged  to  have  endeavoured  to  purchase  safety  by  impeach 
ing  his  own  mother  ("  hoping,"  says  his  translator  Gorges 
quaintly,  "  that  this  impiety  might  be  a  means  to  procure 
pardon  at  the  hands  of  an  impious  prince  ").  The  state 
ment,  however,  of  Tacitus,  that  letters  were  forged  in  his 
name  to  implicate  his  father,  warrants  the  suspicion  that 
the  evidence  against  his  mother  may  also  have  been  fabri 
cated.  Failing  to  obtain  a  reprieve,  he  caused  his  veins 
to  be  opened,  and  expired  with  great  courage,  repeating  a 
passage  from  his  Pharsalia  descriptive  of  the  death  of  a 
wounded  soldier  ("  Lucan  by  his  death  approved,"  Shelley's 
Adonais).  His  father  was  involved  in  the  proscription, 
his  mother  escaped,  and  his  widow  Polla  Argentaria  sur 
vived  to  receive  the  homage  of  Statius  under  Domitian. 

Besides  his  principal  performance,  Lucan's  works 
included  juvenile  poems  on  the  descent  of  Orpheus  and 
the  ransom  of  Hector,  an  unfinished  tragedy  on  the  sub 
ject  of  Medea,  and  numerous  miscellaneous  pieces.  The 
Carmen  ad  Pisonem  sometimes  attributed  to  him  is  now 
more  commonly  ascribed  to  Saleius  Bassus.  His  minor 
works  have  perished,  but  all  that  the  author  wrote  of  the 
Pharsalia  has  come  down  to  us.  It  would  probably  have 
concluded  with  the  battle  of  Philippi,  but  breaks  off 
abruptly  as  Caesar,  beset  by  foes,  is  about  to  plunge  into 
the  harbour  of  Alexandria.  This  incompleteness  should 
not  be  left  out  of  account  in  the  estimate  of  its  merits,  for, 
with  two  capital  exceptions,  the  faults  of  the  Pharsalia 
are  such  as  revision  might  have  mitigated  or  removed. 
No  such  pains,  certainly,  could  have  amended  the  deficiency 
of  unity  of  action,  or  supplied  the  want  of  a  legitimate 
protagonist.  The  Pharsalia  follows  history  with  inevitable 
servility,  and  is  rather  a  metrical  chronicle  than  a  true  epic. 
If  it  had  been  completed  according  to  the  author's  design, 
Pompey,  Cato,  and  Brutus  must  have  successively  enacted 
the  part  of  nominal  hero,  while  the  real  hero  is  the  arch 
enemy  of  liberty  and  Lucan,  Caesar.  Yet  these  defects, 


though  glaring,  are  not  fatal  or  peculiar  to  Lucan.  The 
real  hero  of  Paradise  Lost,  it  has  been  repeatedly 
observed,  is  no  other  than  Satan ;  and  Shakespeare  him 
self  succeeded  no  better  than  Lucan  in  preserving  unity  o! 
action  when  he  wrote  his  Julius  Caesar.  The  false  taste, 
the  strained  rhetoric,  the  ostentatious  erudition,  the  tedious 
harangues  and  far-fetched  or  commonplace  reflexions  so- 
frequent  in  this  singularly  unequal  poem,  are  faults  much 
more  irritating,  but  they  are  also  faults  capable  of  amend 
ment,  and  which  the  writer  might  not  improbably  have 
removed.  As  pointed  out  by  Dean  Merivale,  the  bom 
bastic  style  of  composition  which  prevailed  under  Nero 
yielded  to  a  more  sober  taste  under  the  Flavian  dynasty  ; 
and  the  lapse  of  time  would  have  contributed  to  mellow 
the  poet's  immaturity  and  chasten  the  ardour  of  tempera 
ment  which  made  him  essay  great  themes  "  ante  annos 
Culicis  Maroniani."  Great  allowance  should  also  be  made 
for  the  difficulties  the  highest  genius  must  encounter  when 
emulating  predecessors  who  have  already  carried  art  to  its 
last  perfection,  and  thus  necessitated  to  choose  between 
mere  imitation  and  a  conscious  effort  after  originality. 
Lucan's  temper  could  never  have  brooked  the  former 
course;  his  versification,  no  less  than  his  subject,  is 
entirely  his  own ;  he  avoids  all  resemblance  to  his  great 
predecessor  with  a  persistency  which  can  only  have  resulted 
from  deliberate  purpose,  while  largely  influenced  by  the 
declamatory  school  of  his  grandfather  and  uncle.  Hence 
his  partiality  for  finished  antithesis,  contrasting  strongly 
with  his  generally  breathless  style  and  turbid  diction. 
Quintilian  sums  up  both  aspects  of  his  genius  with  pregnant 
brevity,  "  Ardens  et  concitatus  et  sententiis  clarissinius," 
adding  with  equal  justice,  "  Magis  oratoribus  quam  poetis 
annumerandus."  Lucan's  oratory,  however,  frequently 
rises  into  the  region  of  poetry,  especially  where  it  sets  forth 
ideas  essentially  sublime,  and  impressive  in  the  mere  state 
ment.  Such  are  the  apotheosis  of  Pompey  at  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  book,  and  the  passage  in  the  same  book  where 
Cato,  in  the  truest  spirit  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  refuses 
to  consult  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  The  exordium 
of  the  poem,  arid  the  portraits  of  Csesar  and  Pompey,  are 
examples  of  oratory  blazing  up  into  poetry,  as  a  wheel 
takes  fire  by  friction.  In  some  cases  Lucan's  rhetoric  is 
frigid,  hyperbolical,  and  out  of  keeping  with  the  character 
of  the  speaker,  as  in  Caesar's  address  to  his  legions  before 
Pharsalia ;  in  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
more  he  is  of  an  orator  or  a  moralist  the  more  he  is  of 
a  poet.  If  this  denotes  that  his  genius  was  not  essentially 
and  in  the  truest  sense  poetical,  the  same  may  be  said  of 
Dryden  and  Pope  ;  and  it  at  least  proves  him  to  have 
been  in  harmony  with  the  living  forces  of  his  age,  in  which 
rhetoric  was  a  note  of  culture  and  philosophical  humani- 
tarianism  a  growing  idea,  while  poetry,  though  widely 
cultivated,  was  becoming  more  and  more  a  mere  orna 
mental  accomplishment.  This  is  not  the  case  with  Lucan ; 
his  theme  has  a  genuine  hold  upon  him  ;  in  the  age  of 
Nero  he  celebrates  the  republic  as  a  poet  with  the  same 
energy  with  which  in  the  age  of  Cicero  he  might  have  de 
fended  it  as  an  orator.  But  for  him  it  might  almost  have 
been  said  that  the  Roman  republic  never  inspired  a  Roman 
poet. 

Lucan  never  speaks  of  himself,  but  his  epic  speaks  for 
him.  The  author  of  the  Pharsalia  must  have  been 
endowed  with  no  common  ambition,  industry,  and  self- 
reliance,  an  enthusiastic  though  narrow  and  aristocratic 
patriotism,  and  a  faculty  for  appreciating  magnanimity  in 
others  which  is  at  least  some  presumption  that  he  possessed 
it  himself.  He  probably  bore  a  strong  family  resemblance 
to  his  uncle  Seneca;  but  the  only  personal  trait  positively 
known  to  us  is  his  conjugal  affection,  a  characteristic  of 
Seneca  also. 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


37 


Lucan,  together  with  Statius,  was  preferred  even  to 
Virgil  in  the  Middle  Ages.  So  late  as  1493  his  com 
mentator  Sulpitius  writes  : — "  Magnus  profecto  est  Maro, 
magnus  Lucanus  ;  adeoque  prope  par,  tit  quis  sit  major 
possis  ambigere."  Shelley  and  Southey,  in  the  first  trans 
port  of  admiration,  thought  Lucan  superior  to  Virgil ; 
Pope,  with  more  judgment,  says  that  the  fire  which  burns 
in  Virgil  with  an  equable  glow  breaks  forth  in  Lucan  with 
sudden,  brief,  and  interrupted  flashes.  In  general,  notwith 
standing  the  enthusiasm  of  isolated  admirers,  Lucan  has 
been  unduly  neglected,  but  he  has  exercised  an  important 
influence  upon  one  great  department  of  modern  literature 
by  his  effect  upon  Corneille,  and  through  him  upon  the 
classical  French  drama. 

The  most  celebrated  editions  of  Lucan  are  those  by  Oudendorp 
(1728),  Burmann  (1740),  and  Weber  (1829).  Bentley's  emendations 
are  brilliant,  but  unsafe.  The  most  elaborate  criticism  is  that  in 
Nisard's  Etudes  sur  Ics  Poetes  Latins  de  la  Decadence,  stern  to  the 
poet's  defects  and  unkind  to  his  deserts.  Dean  Merivale  has  some 
excellent  observations  in  his  History  of  Imperial  Rome,  chaps,  liv. 
and  Ixiv.  Brebeuf's  French  version  is  celebrated.  Christopher 
.Marlowe,  a  kindred  spirit,  translated  the  first  book  of  the  1'harsalia 
into  English,  and  there  are  other  old  versions  by  Sir  Ferdinand 
Gorges  and  Thomas  May.  The  latter' s  supplement  is  one  of  the  best 
examples  of  modern  Latin  versification.  Gorges's  translation  is  in 
•octosyllabic  verse,  and  very  curious.  The  standard  English  version, 
by  Rowe,  is  one  of  the  most  successful  translations  in  our  language. 
It  is  somewhat  too  diffuse,  but  as  a  whole  reproduces  the  vehemence 
und  animation  of  the  original  with  a  spirit  that  leaves  little  to  be 
desired.  (R.  G.) 

LUCANIA,  in  ancient  geography,  was  the  name  given 
to  a  province  of  Southern  Italy,  extending  from  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea  on  the  west  to  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  on 
the  east,  while  to  the  north  it  adjoined  Campania, 
Samnium,  and  Apulia,  and  to  the  south  was  separated  by 
a  comparatively  narrow  isthmus  from  the  province  of 
Bruttium,  which  forms  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy. 
It  thus  comprised  the  modern  province  of  the  Basilicata, 
together  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Principato  Citeriore 
and  a  small  portion  of  Calabria.  The  precise  limits  were 
the  river  Silarus  on  the  north-west,  which  separated  it  from 
Campania,  and  the  Bradanus,  which  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  Tarentum,  on  the  north-east;  •while  the  two  little  rivers 
L.IU3  and  Crathis,  flowing  from  the  ridge  of  the  Apennines 
to  the  sea  on  the  west  and  east,  marked  the  limits  of  the 
province  on  the  side  of  Bruttium. 

Almost  the  whole  of  the  province  thus  limited  is  occupied 
by  the  rugged  masses  of  the  Apennines,  which  in  this  part 
of  Italy  can  hardly  be  said  to  constitute  a  range  of 
mountains  so  much  as  a  group  of  lofty  masses,  huddled 
together  in  a  very  irregular  manner.  The  main  ridge, 
however  (if  it  be  taken  as  determined  by  the  watershed), 
approaches  much  more  nearly  to  the  western  sea  than  to 
the  Gulf  of  Tarentum,  and  is  continued  from  the  lofty 
knot  of  mountains  immediately  on  the  frontiers  of  Samnium, 
nearly  due  south,  till  it  approaches  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  Gulf  of  Policastro,  and  thenceforward  is  separated  from 
the  sea  by  only  a  narrow  interval  till  it  enters  the  province 
of  Bruttium.  Just  within  the  frontier  of  Lucania  rises  the 
very  lofty  group  of  Monte  Pollino,  the  highest  summit  of 
which  attains  to  an  elevation  of  above  7000  feet,  the 
greatest  that  is  found  in  the  southern  Apennines.  Towards 
the  east  the  mountains  descend  by  a  much  more  gradual 
slope  to  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum,  constituting  long  ridges  of 
hills  which  subside  by  degrees  to  the  strip  of  plain  that 
immediately  adjoins  the  shores  of  the  gulf.  This  narrow 
strip  is  somewhat  wider  from  the  mouth  of  the  Bradanus 
to  that  of  the  Siris,  and  again  expands  to  a  considerable 
extent  at  the  mouth  of  the  Crathis,  but  between  the  two  a 
group  of  rugged  hills  descends  quite  to  the  sea,  and  forms 
the  headland  of  Roseto.  The  consequence  of  this  constitu 
tion  is  that  while  the  rivers  which  flow  to  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea  are  of  comparatively  little  importance,  those  that 


descend  towards  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  have  much  longer 
courses,  and  attain  to  a  considerable  magnitude.  Of  these 
the  most  important  are — the  Bradanus  (still  called  Bradano), 
which  rises  near  Potentia,  and  enters  the  gulf  just  to  the 
north  of  the  ruins  of  Metapontum ;  the  Casuentus 
(Basiento),  which  has  a  course  almost  exactly  parallel  with 
the  preceding ;  the  Aciris  or  Agri ;  and  the  Siris  or  Sinno. 
The  Crathis,  which  forms  at  its  mouth  the  southern  limit 
of  the  province,  belongs  almost  wholly  to  Bruttium,  but  it 
receives  a  tributary,  the  Sybaris  (Coscile),  which  flows  from 
the  mountains  of  Lucania.  The  only  considerable  stream 
on  the  western  side  of  Lucania  is  the  Silarus  or  Sele,  which 
constitutes  its  northern  boundary,  and  has  two  important 
tributaries  in  the  Gal  or  or  Galore,  and  the  Tanagrus,  which 
joins  it  from  the  south,  after  flowing  through  one  of 
those  trough-like  upland  valleys  so  characteristic  of  the 
Apennines. 

The  province  of  Lucania  was  so  called  from  the  people 
of  that  name,  by  whom  it  was  conquered  about  the  middle 
of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Previous  to  that  period  it  was 
included  under  the  general  name  of  Q^notria,  which  was 
applied  by  the  Greeks  to  the  whole  of  the  southernmost 
portion  of  Italy.  The  mountainous  regions  of  the  interior 
were  occupied  by  the  tribes  known  as  (Eootrians  and 
Chones,  while  the  coasts  on  both  sides  were  occupied  by 
Greek  colonies,  which  attained  to  great  power  and  pro 
sperity,  and  doubtless  exercised  a  kind  of  protectorate  over 
the  interior  also.  (See  GKJECIA  MAGNA.)  The  Lucaninns 
were  a  Sabellian  race,  an  offshoot  of  the  Samnites  of  Central 
Italy,  who  pressed  downwards  towards  the  south  until  they 
gradually  conquered  the  whole  country  (with  the  exception 
of  the  Greek  towns  on  the  coast)  from  the  borders  of 
Samnium  and  Campania  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Italy.  Subsequently,  however,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
peninsula  which  forms  the  extreme  south  (now  known  as 
Calabria)  broke  out  into  insurrection,  and  under  the  name 
of  Bruttians  succeeded  in  establishing  their  independence, 
after  which  the  Lucanians  became  confined  within  the 
limits  already  described.  After  this  time  we  find  them 
engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Tarentines,  and  with 
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  who  was  called  in  by  that  people 
to  their  assistance,  326  B.C.  It  was  immediately  after  this 
that  they  first  entered  into  relations  with  Rome,  with 
which  they  were  sometimes  in  alliance,  but  more  frequently 
engaged  in  hostilities,  during  the  long-continued  wars  of 
the  Romans  with  the  Samnites.  On  the  landing  of 
Pyrrhus  in  Italy  (281  B.C.)  they  were  among  the  first  to 
declare  in  his  favour,  and  in  consequence  found  themselves 
exposed  to  the  full  brunt  of  the  resentment  of  Rome  when 
the  departure  of  Pyrrhus  left  his  allies  at  the  mercy  of  the 
victorious  Romans.  It  was  not,  however,  till  after  several 
campaigns  that  they  were  reduced  to  complete  subjection 
(272  B.C.).  Notwithstanding  this  lesson,  the  Lucanians 
again  espoused  the  cause  of  Hannibal  during  the  Second 
Punic  War  (216  B.C.),  and  their  territory  became  the 
theatre  of  war  during  several  successive  campaigns,  and 
was  ravaged  in  turn  by  both  contending  armies.  It  is 
clear  that  the  country  never  recovered  the  effects  of  these 
disasters,  and  under  the  Roman  government  Lucania  fell 
into  a  state  of  complete  decay,  to  which  the  Social  War 
(90-88  B.C.)  appears  to  have  given  the  finishing  stroke. 
In  the  time  of  Strabo  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast,  once 
so  rich  and  flourishing,  had  fallen  into  utter  insignificance, 
and  the  few  towns  of  the  interior  were  poor  places  of  no 
importance.  A  large  part  of  the  province  was  given  up  to 
pasture,  and  the  mountains  of  the  interior  were  covered 
with  vast  forests,  which  abounded  in  wild  boars,  bears,  and 
wolves. 

The  towns  on  the  east  coast,  adjoining  the  Gulf  of  Tarcntnm, 
were — Metapontum,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Bradanus  ;  Heraclca, 


38 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


at  the  mouth  of  the  Aciris  ;  and  Siris,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name. 
Close  to  its  southern  frontier  stood  Sybaris,  which  was  destroyed 
in  510  B.C.,  but  subsequently  replaced  by  Thuvii,  founded  within 
a  few  miles  of  the  same  site.  On  the  west  coast  stood  Posidonia, 
known  under  the  Roman  government  as  Paestum,  immediately 
south  of  the  Silarus  ;  below  that  came  Elea  or  Yelia,  Pyxus, 
called  by  the  Romans  Buxentum,  and  Laus,  near  the  frontier  of  the 
province  towards  Bruttium.  Of  the  towns  of  the  interior,  none  of 
which  ever  attained  to  any  importance,  the  most  considerable  was 
Potentia,  still  called  Potenza,  and  now  the  capital  of  the  Basilicata. 
To  the  north,  near  the  frontier  of  Apulia,  were  Acheruntia  and 
Bantia  $•  while  due  south  from  Potentia  was  Grumentum,  and  still 
farther  in  that  direction  were  Nerulum  and  Muranum.  In 
the  upland  valley  of  the  Tanagrus  were  Atina,  Forum  Popilii,  and 
Consilinum  ;  Eburi  (Eboli)  and  Volceii  (Buccino),  though  to  the 
north  of  the  Silarus,  were  also  included  in  Lucania. 

For  administrative  purposes  under  the  Roman  empire,  Lucania 
was  always  imited  with  Bruttium.  The  two  together  constituted 
the  third  region  of  Augustus.  (E.  H.  B. ) 

LUGARIS,  CYRILLUS  (c.  1572-1638).  See  GREEK 
CHURCH,  vol.  xi.  p.  158. 

LUCAS  OF  LEYDEN  (c.  1494-1533)  was  born  at  Leyden, 
where  his  father  Hugh  Jacobsz  gave  him  the  first  lessons 
in  art.  He  then  entered  the  painting-room  of  Cornelis 
Engelbrechtszen  of  Leyden,  and  soon  became  known  for 
his  capacity  in  making  designs  for  glass,  engraving  copper 
plates,  painting  pictures,  portraits,  and  landscapes  in  oil 
and  distemper.  According  to  Van  Mander  he  was  bom  in 
1494,  and  painted  at  the  age  of  twelve  a  Legend  of  St 
Hubert,  for  which  as  many  florins  were  paid  to  him  as  he 
numbered  years.  He  was  only  fourteen  when  he  finished  a 
plate  representing  Mohammed  taking  the  life  of  a  friar,  and 
at  fifteen  he  produced  a  series  of  nine  plates  for  a  Passion, 
a  Temptation  of  St  Anthony,  and  a  Conversion  of  St  Paul. 
The  list  of  his  engravings  in  1510,  when,  according  to  Van 
Mander,  he  was  only  sixteen,  includes  a  celebrated  Ecce 
Homo,  Adam  and  Eve  expelled  from  Paradise,  a  herdsman 
and  a  milkmaid  with  three  cows,  and  a  little  naked  girl 
running  away  from  a  barking  dog.  It  will  be  seen  to 
what  a  variety  of  tastes  the  youthful  artist  was  asked  to 
cater.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  tradition  embodied 
in  Van  Mander's  pages  as  to  the  true  age  of  Lucas  of 
Leyden,  there  is  no  doubt  that,  as  early  as  1508,  he  was 
a  master  of  name  as  a  copper-plate  engraver,  and  had 
launched  his  boat  in  the  current  which  in  those  days  led 
to  wealth  and  to  fame.  The  period  of  the  great  masters 
of  etching,  which  had  not  yet  come  for  Holland,  was  being 
preceded  by  the  period  of  the  great  masters  in  the  use  of 
the  graver.  It  was  the  time  when  art  readily  found  its 
patrons  amongst  the  large  public  that  could  ill  afford  to 
buy  pictures,  yet  had  enough  interest  in  culture  to  wish  to 
educate  itself  by  means  of  prints.  Lucas  of  Leyden 
became  the  representative  man  for  the  great  public  of 
Holland  as  Diirer  became  the  representative  man  for  the 
great  public  of  Germany;  and.a  rivalry  grew  up  between 
the  two  engravers,  which  came  to  be  so  close  that  on  the 
neutral  market  of  Italy  the  products  of  each  were  all  but 
evenly  quoted.  Vasari  devoted  almost  equal  attention  to 
both,  affirming  indeed  that  Diirer  surpassed  Lucas  as  a 
designer,  but  that  in  the  use  of  the  graver  they  were  both 
unsurpassed,  a  sentence  which  has  not  been  reversed  by 
the  criticism  of  our  day.  But  the  rivalry  of  the  two  artists 
was  friendly.  About  the  time  when  Diirer  visited  the 
Netherlands  Lucas  came  to  Antwerp,  which  then  flourished 
greatly  as  an  international  mart  for  productions  of  the 
pencil  and  the  graver,  and  it  is  thought,  not  without 
reason,  that  he  was  the  master  who  took  the  freedom  of 
the  Antwerp  guild  in  1521  under  the  name  of  Lucas  the 
Hollander.  In  the  diary  which  Diirer  faithfully  kept 
during  his  travels  in  the  Low  Countries,  we  find  that 
at  Antwerp  he  met  Lucas,  who  asked  him  to  dinner,  and 
that  Diirer  accepted  the  invitation,  and  was  much  surprised 
at  the  smallness  of  the  Dutchman's  stature.  But  he  valued 


the  art  of  Lucas  at  its  true  figure,  and  exchanged  the 
Dutchman's  prints  for  eight  florins'  worth'  of  his  own.  In 
course  of  time  Lucas  rose  to  more  than  a  competence.  In 
1527  he  made  a  tour  of  the  Netherlands,  giving  dinners 
to  the  painters  of  the  guilds  of  Middleburg,  Ghent,  Malines, 
and  Antwerp.  He  was  accompanied  during  the  trip  by 
Mabuse,  whom  he  imitated  in  his  style  as  well  as  in  his 
love  of  rich  costume.  But  festive  cheer  and  banquets 
disagreed  with  Lucas.  On  his  return  home  he  fell  sick 
and  remained  ailing  till  his  death  in  1533,  and  when  he 
died  he  did  so  with  the  firm  belief  that  poison  had  been 
administered  to  him  by  some  envious  comrade. 

As  an  engraver  Lucas  of  Leyden  deserves  his  reputation.  He  has 
not  the  genius,  nor  had  he  the  tact,  of  Diirer;  and  he  displays  more 
cleverness  of  expression  than  skill  in  distribution  or  refinement  in 
details.  But  his  power  in  handling  the  graver  is  very  great,  and 
some  of  his  portraits,  especially  his  own,  are  equal  to  any  tiling  that 
was  done  by  the  master  of  Nuremberg.  Much  that  he  accomplished 
as  a  painter  has  been  lost,  because  he  worked  a  good  deal  upon  cloth 
in  distemper.  But  some  pictures  have  been  preserved  which  fairly 
manifest  the  influences  under  which  he  became  productive.  In 
1522  he  painted  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  the  Magdalen  and 
a  kneeling  donor,  now  preserved  in  the  gallery  of  Munich.  His 
manner  was  then  very  much  akin  to  that  of  Mabuse.  The  Last 
Judgment  in  the  town-hall,  now  the  town-gallery  of  Leyden,  is  com 
posed  on  the  traditional  lines  of  Cristus  and  Memling,  furnished 
with  monsters  in  the  style  of  Jerome  Bosch,  and  figures  in  the 
stilted  attitudes  of  the  South  German  school ;  the  scale  of  colours 
in  yellow,  white,  and  grey  is  at  once  pale  and  gaudy ;  the  quaintest 
contrasts  are  produced  by  the  juxtaposition  of  alabaster  flesh  in 
females  and  bronzed  skin  in  males,  or  black  hair  by  the  side  of 
yellow,  or  rose-coloured  drapery  set  sharply  against  apple-green 
or  black,  yet  some  of  the  heads  are  painted  with  great  delicacy 
and  modelled  with  exquisite  feeling.  Dr  Waagen  gave  a  most 
favourable  opinion  of  a  triptych  now  at  the  Hermitage  at  St  Peters 
burg,  executed,  according  to  Van  Mander,  in  153],  representing  the 
blind  man  of  Jericho  healed  by  Jesus  Christ  in  the  presence  of  the 
apostles.  Here  too  the  great  German  critic  observed  the  union  of 
faulty  composition  with  great  finish  and  warm  flesh-tints  with  a 
gaudy  scale  of  harmonies.  The  same  defects  and  qualities  will  be 
found  in  such  specimens  of  the  master's  art  as  are  still  preserved  in 
public  collections,  amongst  which  maybe  mentioned  the  Card  Party 
at  Wilton  House,  the  Penitent  St  Jerome  in  the  gallery  of  Berlin, 
and  the  hermits  Paul  and  Anthony  in  the  Lich  ten  stein  collection 
at  Vienna. 

A  few  days  before  his  death  Lucas  van  Leyden  was  informed  of 
the  birth  of  a  grandson,  firstborn  of  his  only  daughter  Gretchen. 
Cretchen's  fourth  son  Jean  de  Hoey  followed  the  profession  of  his 
grandfather,  and  became  well  known  at  the  Parisian  court  as  painter 
and  chamberlain  to  the  king  of  France,  Henry  IV. 

LUCCA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  the  chief  town  of  a 
province,  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  the  seat  of  a  court  of 
assize,  lies  13  miles  by  rail  north-east  of  Pisa,  in  43°  50' 
N.  hit.  and  10°  28'  E.  long.  Situated  50  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  in  the  valley  of  the  Serchio,  the  city  looks 
out  for  the  most  part  on  a  horizon  of  hills  and  mountains. 
The  fortifications — pierced  by  four  gates — were  commenced 
in  1504  and  completed  in  1G45,  and  long  ranked  among 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  peninsula.  The  city  has  a 
well-built  and  substantial  appearance,  its  chief  attraction 
lying  in  the  numerous  churches,  which  belong  in  the  main 
to  a  well-marked  basilican  type,  and  present  richly  decorated 
exteriors,  fine  apsidal  ends,  and  quadrangular  campaniles. 
The  cathedral  or  church  of  St  Martin  was  begun  in  10G3  by 
Bishop  Anselm ;  but  the  great  apse  with  its  tall  columnar 
arcades  is  probably  the  only  remnant  of  the  early  edifice. 
The  west  front,  "built  during  the  first  forty  years  of  the 
13th  century,  consists  of  a  vast  portico  of  three  magnificent 
arches,  and  above  them  three  ranges  of  open  galleries 
covered  with  all  the  devices  of  an  exuberant  fancy."  The 
ground  plan  is  a  Latin  cross,  the  nave  being  273  feet  in 
length  and  84  feet  in  width,  and  the  transepts  117  feet  in 
length.  In  the  nave  is  a  little  octagonal  temple  or  chapel 
built  (1484)  by  Matteo  Civitali,  which  serves  as  a  shrine 
for  the  most  precious  cf  the  Lucchese  relics,  a  cedar-wood 
crucifix,  carved,  according  to  the  legend,  by  Nicodemus, 
and  miraculously  conveyed  to  Lucca  in  782.  The  Sacred 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


39 


Countenance  (Volto  Santo),  as  it  is  generally  called,  because 
the  face  of  the  Saviour  is  considered  a  true  likeness,  is 
only  shown  thrice  a  year.  The  beautiful  tomb  of  Maria 
Guinigi  is  described  by  Ruskin,  Modern  Painters,  ii.  The 
church  of  Saint  Michael,  founded  in  the  8th  century,  and 
built  of  marble  within  and  without,  has  a  lofty  and 
magnificent  western  fa9ads  (1188) — an  architectural  screen 
rising  much  above  the  roof  of  the  church.  St  Frediano  or 
Frigidian  dates  originally  from  the  7th  century ;  the  front 
(of  the  13th  century)  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  apse ; 
in  one  of  its  chapels  is  the  tomb  of  Santa  Zita,  patroness 
of  servants  and  of  Lucca  itself.  San  Giovanni  (originally  of 
the  12th  century),  San  Romano  (rebuilt  in  the  17th  century, 
by  Vincenzo  Buonamici),  and  Santa  Maria  Forisportam  (of 
the  13th  century)  also  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  Among 
the  secular  buildings  are  the  old  ducal  palace,  begun  in 
1578  by  Ammanati,  and  now  the  residence  of  the  prefect 
and  seat  of  the  provincial  officers  and  the  public  picture 
gallery;  the  Palazzo  Pretorio,  or  former  residence  of  the 
poiesta,  now  the  seat  of  the  civil  and  correctional  courts ; 
the  palace,  erected  in  the  15th  century  by  a  member 
of  the  great  Guinigi  family,  and  now  serving  as  a  poor- 
house  ;  and  the  16th  century  palace  of  the  Marquis 
Guidiccioni,  now  used  as  a  depository  for  the  archives. 
The  principal  market-place  in  the  city  (Piazza  del  Mercato) 
has  taken  possession  of  the  arena  of  the  ancient  amphi 
theatre,  the  arches  of  which  can  still  be  seen  in  the 
surrounding  buildings.  Besides  the  academy  of  sciences 
just  mentioned,  which  dates  from  1584,  there  are  several 
institutions  of  the  same  kind — a  royal  philomathic  aca 
demy,  a  royal  academy  of  arts,  and  a  public  library 
of  50,000  volumes.  The  silk  manufacture,  which  was 
introduced  at  Lucca  about  the  close  of  the  llth  century, 
and  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  became  for  a  time  the 
means  of  subsistence  for  30,000  of  its  inhabitants,  now 
gives  employment  (in  reeling  and  throwing)  to  only  about 
1500.  The  bulk  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agricul 
ture.  Tn  1871  the  city  had  21,286  inhabitants.  The  com 
mune  has  increased  from  61,175  in  1834  to  68,063  in  1881. 

Lucca  (Latin,  Luca)  is  probably  a  place  of  Ligurian  origin.  First 
mentioned  as  the  place  to  which  Sempronius  retired  (218  B.C.) 
before  the  victorious  Hannibal,  it  passes  out  of  sight  again  till  177, 
when  it  became  the  seat  of  a  Roman  colony.  In  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar  it  is  frequently  heard  of  as  a  town  in  his  province  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul  and  Liguria,  to  which  he  repaired  for  consultation  with  his 
political  associates.  By  Augustus  it  was  transferred  to  Etruria. 
Though  plundered  and  deprived  of  part  of  its  territory  by  Odoacer, 
Lucca  appears  as  an  important  city  and  fortress  at  the  time  of 
N arses,  and  under  the  Lombards  it  was  the  residence  of  a  duke  or 
marquis  and  had  the  privilege  of  a  mint.  The  dukes  gradually 
extended  their  power  over  all  Tuscany,  but  after  the  death  of  the 
famous  Matilda  the  city  began  to  constitute  itself  an  independent 
community,  and  in  1160  it  obtained  from  Welf  VI.,  duke  of  Bavaria 
and  marquis  of  Tuscany,  the  lordship  of  all  the  country  for  5  miles 
round.  Internal  discord  afforded  an  opportunity  to  Uguccione  della 
Faggiola  to  make  himself  master  of  Lucca  in  1314  ;  but  the 
Lucchese  expelled  him  two  years  afterwards,  and  handed  over  their 
city  to  Castru<5cio,  under  whose  masterly  tyranny  it  became  "for  a 
moment  the  leading  state  of  Italy."  Occupied  by  the  troops  of 
Louis  of  Bavaria,  sold  to  a  rich  Genovese  Gherardo  Spinola,  seized 
by  John,  king  of  Bohemia,  pawned  to  the  Rossi  of  Parma,  sold  to 
the  Florentines,  surrendered  to  the  Pisans,  nominally  liberated  by 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  and  governed  by  his  vicar,  Lucca  was  sub 
jected  to  endless  vicissitudes,  but  managed,  at  first  as  a  democracy, 
and  after  1628  as  an  oligarchy,  to  maintain  "  its  independence  along 
side  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  and  painted  the  word  Libertas  on  its 
banner  till  the  French  Revolution."  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  one  of  its  leading  citizens,  Francesco  Burlamacchi,  made  a 
noble  attempt  to  give  political  cohesion  to  Italy,  but  perished  on 
the  scaffold  (1548) ;  his  statue  by  Ulisse  Cambi  was  erected  on  the 
Piazza  San  Michele  in  1863.  As  a  principality  formed  in  1805  by 
Napoleon  in  favour  of  his  sister  Elisa  and  her  husband  Baciocchi, 
Lucca  was  for  a  few  years  wonderfully  prosperous.  It  was  occupied 
by  the  Neapolitans  in  1814  ;  from  1816  to  1847  it  was  governed  as 
a  duchy  by  Maria  Luisa,  queen  of  Etruria,  and  her  son  Charles 
Lonis  ;  and  it  afterwards  formed  one  of  the  divisions  of  Tuscany. 

The  bishops  of  Lucca,  who  can  be  traced  back  to  347,  gradually 


acquired  a  variety  of  exceptional  marks  of  distinction,  such  as  the 
pallium  in  1120,  and  the  archiepiscopal  cross  from  Alexander  II.  ; 
and  at  length  in  1726  Benedict  XIII.  raised  their  see  to  the  rank  of 
an  archbishopric,  without  suffragans. 

See  Memorieper  serci,  e  alia  storia  del  ducato  <li  Lucca,  published  by  the  Lucca 
Academy;  Mazzarosa,  !-to>ia  di  Lucca,  Lucca,  1833;  Keputti,  Dizivnario  tldla 
Tuscana,  Florence,  1835  ;  Freeman,  Hist,  and  Arch.  Sketches,  London,  1876. 

LUCCA,  BATHS  OF  (BAGNI  DI  LUCCA,  formerly  BAGNO 
A  CORSENA),  a  commune  of  Italy  in  the  province  of  Lucca, 
containing  a  number  of  famous  watering-places.  They 
are  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Lima,  a  tributary  of  the 
Serchio ;  and  the  district  is  known  in  the  early  history  of 
Lucca  as  the  Vicaria  di  Val  di  Lima.  Ponte  Serraglio  (16 
miles  to  the  north  of  Lucca)  is  the  principal  village ;  but 
there  are  warm  springs  and  baths  also  at  Villa,  Docce 
Bassi,  Bagno  Caldo,  &c.  Bagno  a  Corsena  is  mentioned  in 
1284  by  Guidone  da  Corvaia,  a  Pisan  historian  (Muratori, 
vol.  xxii.);  and  by  the  16th  century  the  waters  had 
attained  great  celebrity.  Fallopius,  who  gave  them  credit 
for  the  cure  of  his  own  deafness,  sounded  their  praises  in 
1569;  and  they  have  been  more  or  less  in  fashion  since. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  varies  from  96°  to  133°  Fahr.; 
in  all  cases  it  gives  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  contains  lime, 
magnesium,  and  sodium  products.  In  the  village  of  Bagno 
Caldo  there  is  a  considerable  hospital,  constructed  largely 
at  the  expense  of  Nicholas  Demidoff  in  1826.  The 
population  of  the  commune  was  11,000  in  1881. 

LUCENA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cordova, 
37  miles  south-south-east  from  that  city,  and  11  miles  by 
road  south-east  from  the  Aguilar  station  of  the  Cordova- 
Malaga  Railway.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Cascajar, 
a  minor  tributary  of  the  Genii,  in  a  district  that  produces 
oil,  wine,  and  cereals  in  great  abundance,  and  affords 
excellent  pasture.  The  parish  church,  which  is  large  but 
not  otherwise  remarkable,  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century.  The  chief  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  hardware  and  pottery,  bronze  lamps  being  a  specialty  of 
Lucena,  and  also  the  large  earthenware  jars  (tinajas]  used 
throughout  Spain  for  the  storage  of  oil  and  wine.  There 
is  considerable  trade  in  the  produce  of  the  neighbourhood, 
and  the  horse  mart  is  famous  throughout  Andalusia.  The 
population  in  1877  was  19,540.  Lucena  was  taken  from 
the  Moors  early  in  the  14th  century  ;  it  was  in  the  attempt 
to  recapture  it  that  King  Abu  'Abdallah  (Boabdil)  of 
Granada  was  taken  prisoner  in  1483. 

LUCERA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  on 
a  hill  in  the  midst  of  the  Apulian  plain,  lies  10  miles  west- 
north-west  of  Foggia.  Although  a  busy  and  flourishing 
place,  with  14,014  inhabitants  in  1871,  Lucera  is  mainly 
of  historical  interest.  The  cathedral,  erected  on  the  ruins 
of  the  magnificent  mosque,  is  a  fine  Romanesque  building 
with  Gothic  features ;  and  the  castle,  whose  imposing  ruins 
still  crown  the  hill  to  the  north  of  the  town,  was  formerly 
the  grandest  of  all  the  strongholds  possessed  by  the  Hohen- 
staufen  emperors  to  the  south  of  the  Alps. 

By  a  Greek  tradition  the  foundation  of  Luceria  was  assigned  to 
Diomede,  and  the  statue  in  its  temple  of  Minerva  passed  as  the 
authentic  Palladium  ;  but  the  place  would  seem  to  be  really  of 
Oscan  rather  than  Daunian  origin.  The  Romans  were  marching  to 
the  relief  of  Luceria  when  they  suffered  the  defeat  at  the  Caudine 
Forks;  they  effected  its  capture  in  320  B.C.;  and  when  they  re 
covered  it  in  314  they  slew  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
introduced  a  powerful  body  of  colonists.  During  the  Second 
Punic  War  the  city  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Apulian  cam 
paigns.  It  continued  to  exist  as  a  place  of  some  mark  down  through 
the  empire,  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  a  colony.  Destroyed 
(663  A.D.  )  by  the  emperor  Constans,  who  had  recovered  it  from  the 
Lombards,  it  was  shortly  after  restored,  and  in  1227  it  was  raised 
to  more  than  its  former  prosperity  by  Frederick  II.,  who  settled 
there  a  great  body  of  his  Saracen  followers  from  Sicily,  and  thus 
increased  its  population  to  about  77,000.  The  Mohammedan 
colony,  however,  was  brought  to  ruin  by  the  hostility  of  Charles  I. 
and  II.  of  Anjou.  Previous  to  1806  Lucera  was  the  administrative 
centre  of  the  two  provinces  Basilicata  and  Molise.  See  W.  Lang, 
in  Im  Neuen  Reich,  Dec.  1877. 


LUCERNE 


LUCERNE  (German,  Luzern},  a  canton  of  Switzerland 
lying  north-west  of  the  central  mass  of  the  Swiss  Alps, 
having  the  canton  of  Aargau  to  tli3  north,  Bern  to  the 
west  and  south,  and  the  small  cantons  of  Zug,  Schwyz, 
and  Unterwalden  on  the  east  and  south-east  sides.  Like 
most  of  the  Swiss  cantons  its  form  is  very  irregular,  and 
it  includes,  besides  a  part  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  the 
Likes  of  Sempach  and  Baldegg,  and  several  smaller  sheets 
of  water.  To  this  circumstance  is  probably  due  the  dis 
crepancy  in  the  various  estimates  of  the  area,  which  range 
from  498  to  535  square  miles.  The  greater  pirt  of  its 
territory  lies  in  the  low  hilly  region  of  north-western 
Switzerland,  most  of  which  is  under  cultivation  ;  but  it 
has  one  considerable  valley,  the  Entlebuch,  enclosed  by 
mountains,  several  of  which  exceed  5000  feet  in  height, 
whi:h  is  devoted  to  pasturage.  The  only  considerable 
mountain  in  the  canton  is  the  Pilatus,  a  steep  jagged  ridge 
with  numerous  peiks,  the  highest  of  which  is  7290  feet 
abjve  the  sea,  funning  the  boundary  between  this  and 
the  canton  of  Unterwalden.  The  only  river  is  the  Reuss, 
whhh  issues  from  the  lake  at  the  town  of  Lucerne,  but 
soon  turns  abruptly  to  the  north-east,  and  passes  the 
boundary  of  the  canton.  Of  many  smaller  streams  that 
water  its  surface,  the  most  important  is  the  Little  Emme, 
which  drains  the  Entlebuch  and  its  tributary  valleys. 
The  soil  is  moderately  fertile,  and  produces  good  crops  of 
cereals,  bat  the  vine  is  grown  only  in  a  few  exceptionally 
favourable  situations.  Some  of  the  higher  valleys,  espe 
cially  the  Entlebuch,  are  mainly  devoted  to  pasture,  and 
furnish  cheese  and  butter  in  considerable  quantities,  of 
which  the  surplus  is  exported.  The  population  in  Decem 
ber  1880  was  134,806,  of  whom  all  but  5634  were  Koman 
Catholics.  The  language  is  exclusively  German,  and  the 
people  belong  to  the  Teutonic  stock.  Excepting  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Lucerne,  they  are  mainly 
employed  in  agriculture.  The  men  of  the  Entlebuch, 
leading  a  pastoral  life  and  little  exposed  to  intercourse  with 
strangers,  have  preserved  more  of  the  original  simplicity  of 
manners  and  costume  than  is  now  often  found  elsewhere  in 
Switzerland.  They  are  famed  for  their  strength  and  skill 
in  wrestling  and  other  athletic  exercises,  as  may  be  seen 
at  the  Schwingfeste,  still  frequently  held  in  that  district. 

Like  the  rest  of  northern  Switzerland,  Lucerne  was  subject  to 
the  house  of  Austria  until  1332,  when  its  people  joined  the  league 
of  the  forest  cantons,  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden,  thus  forming 
the  fourth  in  date  of  the  confederation.  They  bore  their  share  in 
the  brilliant  victory  of  Sempach,  fought  in  ]386  near  the  village  of 
that  name,  and  in  1402  acquired  the  Entlebuch  by  purchase  from 
tha  Austrian  duke.  The  government  was  until  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  an  oligarchy  in  the  hands  of  a  few  families,  but  in  1798  the 
French  invasion  substituted  democratic  institutions.  These,  with 
several  changes  all  tending  to  give  more  complete  power  to  the 
peopl ',  have  continued  to  the  present  time.  The  constitution  now 
in  force  dates  from  the  17th  February  1869,  and  is  based  on  the 
principle  which  prevails  throughout  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  that 
the  sovereign  power  is  vested  exclusively  in  the  people,  but  may  be 
exercised  either  directly  or  through  delegates  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.  Lucerne  formerly  sent  a  contingent  of  1734  men  to  the 
federal  army,  but  according  to  the  latest  return  the  number  of  men 
belonging  to  the  canton  on  the  rolls  (in  1879)  was  5176.  In  1846 
Lucerne  took  a  leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Sondc?'bund, 
a  league  of  several  of  the  Catholic  cantons  to  oppose  forcible 
resistance  to  the  decree  of  the  federal  government  for  the  expul 
sion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Switzerland.  In  the  brief  campaign  that 
ensued  in  the  following  year,  the  forces  of  the  Sonderbund  were 
utterly  routed,  and  after  a  few  days  the  conflict  ceased.  Since  that 
date  the  canton  seems  to  have  enjoyed  complete  internal  tranquillity. 
Lucerne  has  produced  a  fair  proportion  of  men  who  have  distin 
guished  themselves  in  science,  literature,  philosophy,  and  art. 
Among  many  others  whose  reputation  is  confined  to  their  own 
country,  the  names  of  the  naturalists  Cappeler  and  Lange,  the 
historians  Etterlin  and  Balthasar,  and  the  philosopher  Troxlerhave 
acquired  more  permanent  reputation. 

LUCERNE,  the  chief  town  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  that 
name,  stands  on  both  banks  of  the  Reuss,  where  that 
river  issues  from  the  north-west  end  of  the  chief  arm  of 


the  lake  of  Lucerne.  The  position  of  the  town  is  singu 
larly  beautiful.  Beyond  the  lower  hills,  rich  with  plant 
ing  and  cultivation,  which  slope  towards  the  shores  of 
the  lake  and  the  river,  loftier  summits  of  very  varied 
form  rise  in  the  background.  Most  prominent  of  these  is 
the  many-peaked  Pilatus,  only  about  7  miles  distant,  while 
the  double  summit  of  the  Mythen,  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  lake,  is  flanked  by  other  less  imposing  summits,  amongst 
which  the  Righi  draws  attention,  owing  to  the  fame  of  its 
panoramic  view.  The  picturesque  aspect  of  the  town  is 
much  enhanced  by  the  ancient  walls,  now  partly  removed, 
and  the  circular  or  octagonal  towers  which  surround  it. 
One  of  these,  called  the  Wasserthurm,  rising  from  the 
water's  edge,  is  said  to  have  served  as  a  lighthouse 
(luctrna),  and  to  have  originated  the  name  of  the  town 
and  canton.  The  town  appears  to  owe  its  origin  to  a 
Benedictine  monastery  which  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
present  Hofkirche.  The  buildings  which  clustered  round 
gradually  increased,  until,  early  in  the  14th  century,  the 
walls  were  erected  for  protection,  and  bridges  were  carried 
across  the  river.  The  Rathhaus,  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
cantonal  Government,  is  an  ancient  building  adorned  with 
wood  carving  and  quaint  pictures.  In  a  large  hall  are  pre 
served  the  portraits  of  the  chief  magistrates  (SclndtlieiKse.n} 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  year  1814.  The  libraries  of 
Lucerne  are  said  to  possess  the  most  complete  and 
important  collection  of  documents  connected  with  the 
history  of  Switzerland  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
town  library,  now  in  the  museum,  contains  about  12,000 
volumes,  and  is  especially  rich  in  manuscript  chronicles. 
The  cantonal  library,  reckoned  at  over  80,000  volumes,  with 
many  incunabula,  was  chiefly  formed  from  the  libraries  of 
suppressed  monasteries.  Other  curious  books  are  to  be 
found  in  the  library  of  the  Capuchins  at  Wesemlin  outside 
the  town. 

Besides  two  modern  bridges  which  span  the  river,  there 
are  two  wooden  causeways,  roofed  over,  and  passable  only 
on  foot,  which  anciently  served  the  wants  of  the  inhabi 
tants;  a  third,  the  longest  of  all,  was  removed  in  the  pro 
gress  of  modern  improvements.  Of  those  remaining,  the 
more  ancient,  called  the  Miihlbriicke,  was  adorned  with 
illustrations  of  the  "Dance  of  Death,"  a  favourite  subject 
with  German  and  Swiss  mediaeval  artists ;  though  much 
injured  by  time,  they  are  still  visible.  The  other  wooden 
bridge — the  Kapellbriicke — is  decorated  with  numerous 
paintings  representing  events  in  Swiss  history  and  in  the 
lives  of  Saints  Leodegar  and  Mauritius,  the  patrons  of  the 
city.  The  principal  church,  which  has  little  architectural 
merit,  possesses  a  fine  organ.  Along  with  various  religious 
and  charitable  institutions  which  seem  fully  adequate  to 
the  wants  of  the  population,  a  museum  has  been  opened 
of  late  years  which,  among  various  other  objects,  contains 
an  interesting  archaeological  collection,  going  back  to  the 
prehistoric  period,  and  including  relics  of  historical  interest, 
such  as  trophies  taken  on  the  field  of  Sempach,  formerly 
preserved  in  the  arsenal.  The  town  contains  one  object 
of  genuine  artistic  interest — the  colossal  lion  designed  to 
commemorate  the  men  of  the  Swiss  guard  who  fell  in  the 
defence  of  the  Tuileries  in  Paris  on  the  10th  August  1792. 
The  idea,  which  might  easily  have  led  an  inferior  artist 
into  extravagance  and  vulgarity,  was  well  suited  for  the 
simple  and  manly  genius  of  Thorwaldsen,  who  supplied 
the  model ;  and,  although  the  execution  is  necessarily 
somewhat  rude,  the  effect  is  touching  and  impressive.  In 
an  architectural  point  of  view  the  most  notable  part  of  the 
town  is  the  wide  quay  formed  on  land  reclaimed  from  the 
lake  in  1852,  planted  on  one  side  with  trees,  and  on  the 
other  showing  a  succession  of  those  great  hotels  which 
everywhere  in  Switzerland  have  been  built  to  accommodate 
and  to  tempt  the  strangers  who  annually  resort  to  the 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


41 


•country.  This  constant  flow  of  visitors  has  led  to  a  large 
increase  of  population ;  that  of  Lucerne,  which  twenty 
years  before  was  little  over  10,000,  was  17,850  at  the 
census  of  1880.  (J.  B.) 

LUCERNE,  LAKE  OF,  the  name  given  by  foreigners  to 
the  Vierwaldstuttersee,  or  lake  of  the  four  forest  cantons  of 
Switzerland.  Only  a  small  portion  of  its  shores  lie  within 
the  canton  of  Lucerne,  but  the  name  has  been  taken  from 
the  most  considerable  town  which  it  approaches.  Lying 
on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Alps  of  central  Switzerland, 
this  lake  has  extraordinary  interest  for  the  physical 
geographer,  for  the  lover  of  natural  scenery,  and  for  all 
who  feel  sympathy  with  the  story  of  Swiss  independence. 
Like  most  of  the  other  Alpine  lakes,  it  lies  altogether  among 
the  Vondpen,  or  outer  ranges  of  the  Alps,  but  is  remarkable 
for  the  extreme-  irregularity  of  its  form,  which  suggests 
problems  of  much  difficulty  to  the  orographer.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Alpine  lakes  occupy  depressions  or  excava 
tions  in  a  single  line  of  valley ;  anrl,  so  far  as  their  form  is 
concerned,  the  facts  appear  to  be  equally  reconcilable  with 
the  views  of  those  geologists  who  believe  the  lake  basins  to 
have  been  hollowed  out  by  great  glaciers  as  with  those 


Plan  of  Lake  of  Lucerne. 


which  refer  their  origin  to  disturbances  of  relative  level, 
and  restrict  the  action  of  the  ancient  glaciers  to  a  secondary 
part  in  the  result.  The  Lake  of  Lucerne,  however,  appears 
to  occupy  portions  of  four  different  valleys,  orographically 
distinct,  and  connected  only  by  narrow  anrl  tortuous  channels. 
Commencing  at  its  eastern  extremity,  we  have  the  portion 
called  the  Bay  of  Uri,  which  at  its  southern  end  receives 
the  considerable  stream  of  the  Reuss,  bearing  down  the 
drainage  of  the  Alps  adjoining  the  pass  of  St  Gotthard. 
This  extends  from  south  to  north  about  8  miles,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  less  than  2  miles,  enclosed  between 
steep  limestone  mountains  rising  from  4000  to  5000  feet 
above  its  surface.  At  the  north  end  of  the  Bay  of  LTri  a 
low  tract,  only  a  few  miles  in  width,  divides  the  shore  of 
the  lake  from  the  little  Lake  of  Lowerz,  and  another  similar 
tract  divides  the  latter  from  the  Lake  of  Zug,  so  that  it 
seems  natural  to  conclude  that  if  the  Bay  of  Uri  had  been 
excavated  by  ice  action  it  would  have  retained  its  original 
direction  and  carried  the  waters  of  the  Reuss  to  the  Lake 
of  Zug.  In  point  of  fact  the  channel  of  the  lake  is  bent 
abruptly  westward  round  the  promontory  of  Treib,  and 
extends  in  the  same  direction  nearly  10  miles,  with  the 
local  designation  of  Buochsersee.  But  this  channel  is 
closed  at  its  western  end  by  a  low  neck  of  land,  and  the 
passage  for  navigation  is  through  a  narrow  strait,  less  than 
half  a  mile  wide,  which  connects  the  Buochsersee,  lying 
south  of  the  Biirgenstein  and  the  Vitznauerstock,  with  a 
fiird  basin  occupying  the  bottom  of  the  valley  which  lies 


north  of  those  ridges.  Proceeding  westward  along  this 
latter  portion  of  the  lake,  we  find  two  deep  bays,  several 
miles  in  length,  opening  on  either  hand,  while  a  third 
extends  somewhat  north  of  west  to  the  town  of  Lucerne. 
The  bay  on  the  left  hand,  opening  towards  the  south  west, 
is  called  the  Alpnachcrsee,  while  that  on  the  opposite  or 
north-east  side  is  the  Bay  of  Kiissnacht.  At  the  central 
point  where  these  meet  it  is  seen  that  they  lie  in  a 
continuous  line  of  valley  extending  from  the  Briinig  Pass 
to  the  Lake  of  Zug,  as  the  Bay  of  Kiissnacht  is  separated 
from  the  latter  only  by  a  low  isthmus.  Those  who  refuse 
to  regard  glaciers  as  the  chief  agents  in  the  excavation  of 
lake  basins  ask  how  it  can  be  supposed  that  a  glacier  from 
the  valley  of  the  Reuss  could  have  accomplished  the 
hollowing  out  of  the  middle  portions  of  the  lake,  and 
further  inquire  whether  the  glacier  from  the  valley  of 
Sarnen,  which  is  supposed  to  have  excavated  the  bays  of 
Alpnach  and  Kiissnacht,  should  not  have  also  cleared  away 
the  isthmus  between  the  latter  and  the  Lake  of  Zug,  leading 
the  drainage  of  the  lake  in  that  direction.  The  question 
as  to  the  true  origin  of  lake  basins  in  the  Alps  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  discussed  until  their  forms  have  been 
determined  by  numerous  and  accurate  soundings,  and  ,this 
has  as  yet  been  done  for  the  Lake  of  Como  alone.  The 
greatest  depth  hitherto  measured  in  the  Lake  of  Lucerne 
is  1040  feet,  but  no  connected  series  of  soundings  appear 
to  have  as  yet  been  made.  The  mean  height  of  the  surface 
above  the  sea-level  is  1437  feet,  or  68  feet  higher  than  the 
Like  of  Zug. 

The  irregularity  of  its  form  is  the  chief  cause  of  the 
unequalled  variety  which  characterizes  the  scenery  of  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne,  but  the  geological  structure  of  the  moun 
tains  that  enclose  it  much  enhances  the  effect.  Its  eastern 
portion  lies  amid  the  Secondary  limestone  rocks  which  are 
everywhere  in  the  Alps  marked  by  sharp  peaks  and  ridges 
and  precipitous  crags  ;  the  middle  part  is  enclosed  by  great 
masses  of  Tertiary  conglomerate,  called  in  Switzerland 
Nagelfluhe,  which  constitutes  such  mountains  as  the  Righi 
and  the  Biirgenstoin,  showing  steep  faces  with  gently 
sloping  summits  ;  while  the  western  extremity  is  surrounded 
by  swelling  hills  richly  planted  and  dotted  with  bright 
looking  hamlets  or  solitary  farm-houses.  The  forests  which 
once  covered  the  greater  part  of  this  region,  and  give  the 
local  designation  to  the  four  original  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
have  been  extensively  thinned,  but  enough  yet  remain  to 
add  another  element  to  the  charms  of  the  scenery.  Vine 
yards  with  their  formal  rows  of  stakes  are  scarcely  seen  on 
the  shores  of  the  lake,  but  orchards  surround  most  of  the 
houses,  and  the  walnut  grows  to  great  perfection.  Lucerne 
is  the  only  town  on  the  lake.  Altdorf,  the  chief  town  of 
Uri,  stands  nearly  2  miles  from  the  head  of  the  Bay  of 
Uri,  and  Schwyz,  capital  of  the  canton  of  that  name,  is 
more  than  3  miles  from  the  shore;  but  since  the  introduction 
of  steam  navigation  several  of  the  villages  on  its  coast  have 
largely  increased  in  population. 

Modern  scepticism  has  thrown  doubt  upon  many  of  the  details  in 
the  popular  history  of  the  origin  of  Swiss  independence  ;  but  it  is 
certain  that  the  shores  of  this  lake  nurtured  the  men  \vho  com 
menced  the  heroic  efforts  that  secured  freedom  for  their  country. 
Here,  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  in  an  age  when  nearly 
all  Europe  was  in  the  hands  of  feudal  oppressors,  a  handful  o' 
mountaineers  drove  out  the  local  tyrants  and  levelled  their  strong 
holds,  and  a  few  years  later,  on  the  fields  of  Morgarten  and  Sem- 
pach,  confronted  and  put  to  flight  the  chivalry  of  Austria.  The  man 
who  can  visit  unmoved  the  Griitli,  the  spot,  overlooking  the  Bay  of 
Uri,  consecrated  by  popular  tradition  as  the  scene  of  the  first  meet 
ing  of  the  confederates  or  the  night  of  the  7th  October  1307,  must 
be  devoid  of  all  sense  of  the  sublime  in  natural  scenery  and  of  the 
heroic  in  human  action.  (J.  B.) 

LUCIA,  or  LUCY,  ST,  was  a  noble  Christian  virgin  of 
Syracuse,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  Her 
mother,  having  been  miraculously  cured  of  an  illness  at  the 

XV.  —  6 


42 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


sepulchre  of  St  Agatha  in  Catania,  was  persuaded  by  Lucia 
to  distribute  all  her  wealth  to  the  poor.  The  youth  to 
whom  the  daughter  had  been  betrothed  forthwith  denounced 
her  to  Paschasius  the  prefect,  who  ordered  that  she  should 
be  taken  away  and  subjected  to  shameful  outrage.  But 
it  was  found  that  no  force  which  could  be  applied  was  able 
to  move  her  from  the  spot  on  which  she  stood ;  even 
boiling  oil  and  burning  pitch  had  no  power  to  hurt  her, 
until  at  last  she  was  slain  with  the  sword.  Such  in 
substance  is  the  narrative  of  the  appropriate  lessons  given 
in  the  Roman  Breviary  for  the  festival  of  St  Lucia  on 
December  13  (duplex);  a  later  legend  represents  her  as 
having  plucked  out  her  eyes  when  they  threatened  to 
become  a  snare  to  her  lover,  and  as  having  had  them  after 
wards  restored  to  her  more  beautiful  than  before.  In  art 
she  is  represented  as  suffering  martyrdom,  as  bearing  her 
eyes  on  a  salver,  or  as  carrying  a  flaming  lamp  in  her  hand  ; 
in  the  last  case  she  is  the  type  of  celestial  light  or  wisdom 
(comp.  Dante,  /»/.,  ii.;  Pitry.,  ix.;  Par.,  xxxii.).  She  is 
invoked  in  cases  of  eye-disease,  and  is  also  regarded  as  the 
patroness  of  the  labouring  poor. 

LUCIAN,  one  of  the  principal  essay-writers  (Aoyoypa<4oi) 
and  satirists  of  the  post-Christian  era,  the  silver  age  of 
Greek  literature,  was  born  at  Samosata  on  the  Euphrates 
in  northern  Syria.1  We  have  no  indication  of  the  precise 
date  of  his  birth,  but  it  is  probable  that  he  nourished  about 
or  after  the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  as  he  mentions 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  his  war  with  the  German  Marco- 
manni  and  Quadi  (170-74  A.D.)  in  his  Alexander  (§  43). 
He  tells  us  in  the  Somnium  or  Vita  Luciani,  §  1,  that 
his  means  being  small  he  was  at  first  apprenticed  to  his 
maternal  uncle,  a  statuary,  or  rather  sculptor  of  the  stone 
pillars  called  Hermae.2  When  a  schoolboy  he  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  scraping  the  wax  from  his  tablets  and  using 
it  for  moulding  or  modelling  little  figures  of  dogs,  horses, 
or  men.3  Having  made  an  unlucky  beginning  by  breaking 
a  marble  slab,  and  having  been  well  beaten  for  it,  he 
absconded  and  returned  home.  Here  he  had  a  dream  or 
vision  of  two  women,  representing  Statuary  and  Literature. 
Both  plead  their  cause  at  length,  setting  forth  the 
advantages  and  the  prospects  of  their  respective  professions  ; 
bat  the  youth  chooses  ILuSeia,  and  decides  to  pursue 
learning.  For  some  time  he  sesms  to  have  made  money 
as  a  prJTwp,  following  the  example  of  Demosthenes,  on 
whose  merits  and  patriotism  he  expatiates  in  the  dialogue 
Demosthenis  Encomium.  It  is  clear  from  his  numerous 
writings  that  he  was  very  familiar  with  the  rival  schools  of 
philosophy,  and  he  must  have  well  studied  their  teachings  ; 
but  he  lashes  them  all  alike,  the  Cynics,  perhaps,  being 
the  chief  object  of  his  derision.4  A  large  number  of 
philosophers,  both  ancient  and  contemporary,  are  mentioned 
by  name,  nearly  always  in  ridicule  or  disparagement. 
Lucian  was  not  only  a  sceptic ;  he  was  a  scoffer  and  a 
downright  unbeliever.  He  felt  that  men's  actions  and 
conduct  always  fall  far  short  of  their  professions,  and 
therefore  he  concluded  that  the  professions  themselves  were 
worthless,  and  a  mere  guise  to  secure  popularity  or  respect. 
Of  Christianity  he  shows  some  knowledge,  and  it  must 

1  He  mentions  it  only  once,  in  the  treatise  -ircas  Sel  Itrroplav  ffvy- 
ypz(pfii>,  where  he  speaks  of  T^V  «W  irarptSa  TO.  Sa^dirara  (§  24). 
In    Piscator   (§    18),    he  speaks  of  himself  as  2upos  -rSov  'ETreu^pa- 
Ti&i<av. 

2  The  words  &PHTTOS  fp/j.oy\v<pos  elVcu  SOK&V  (§  3)  are  probably 
satirical,  and  really  mean  <pav\os,  "second-rate,"  for  it  is  clear  that 
he  disliked  his  uncle.  3  Ibid.,  §  2. 

4  Hence  Diogenes  is  made  to  say  in  Piscator,  §  23,  virep  aTravras 
v^pifffjtai,  sc.  irpta  hovKiavov.  In  $[a»>  Trpaffts  (p.  551)  the  same 
philosopher  asserts  that  "any  one  will  be  looked  up  to  and  get  a 
reputation  if  only  he  has  impudence  and  abuse."  At  the  auction 
Diogenes  is  valued  at  twopence  (§  11).  That  Lucian  had  practised  in 
law  courts,  and  turned  his  eloquence  afterwards  against  the  philo 
sophers,  is  asserted  in  Pixcat.,  §  25. 


have  been  somewhat  largely  professed  in  Syria  at  the  close 
of  the  2d  century.5  In  the  rhilopatris,  though  the 
dialogue  so  called  is  generally  regarded  as  spurious,  there 
is  a  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,6  and  the 
"Galilsean  who  had  ascended  to  the  third  heaven"  (§  12), 
and  "  renewed "  (aveKOLvurev)  by  the  waters  of  baptism, 
may  possibly  allude  to  St  Paul.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Ao'yo?  and  the  "Light  of  the  world,"  and  that  God  is  in 
heaven  making  a  record  of  the  good  and  bad  actions  of 
men,7  seem  to  have  come  from  the  same  source,  though  the 
notion  of  a  written  catalogue  of  human  actions  to  be  used 
in  judgment  was  familiar  to  ZEschylus  and  Euripides. 

As  a  satirist  and  a  wit  Lucian  stands  without  a  rival. 
In  these  respects  he  may  be  said  to  occupy  in  prose  litera 
ture  the  unique  position  which  Aristophanes  holds  in  Greek 
poetry.  But  whether  he  is  a  mere  satirist,  who  laughs 
while  he  lashes,  or  a  misanthrope,  who  hates  while  he 
derides,  is  not  very  clear.  In  favour  of  the  former  view 
it  may  be  said  that  the  two  main  objects  of  his  ridicule 
are  mythology  and  the  sects  of  philosophy ;  in  favour 
of  the  latter,  his  bitter  exposure  of  imposture  and 
chicanery  in  the  Alexander,  and  the  very  severe  attacks  he 
makes  on  the  "humbug"  of  philosophy,8  which  he  every 
where  assails  with  the  most  acrimonious  and  contemptuous 
epithets. 

As  a  writer  Lucian  is  fluent,  easy,  and  unaffected,  and  a 
close  follower  of  the  best  Attic  models,  such  as  Plato  and 
the  orators.  His  style  is  simpler  than  Plutarch's,  and 
some  of  his  compositions,  especially  the  Dialogues  of  the  Gods 
(pp.  204-287)  and  of  the  Marine  Deities  (288-327),  and, 
above  all,  the  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  (329-454),  are  models 
of  witty,  polished,  and  accurate  Greek  composition.  Not 
less  clever,  though  rather  lax  in  morality,  are  the  IraipiKoi 
StaAoyoi  (pp.  280-325),  which  remind  us  somewhat  of 
the  letters  of  Alciphron.  The  sarcasms  on  the  popular 
mythology,  the  conversations  of  Pluto,  Hermes,  Charon, 
and  others  of  the  powers  in  Hades,  show  a  positive  disbelief 
of  any  future  state  of  existence.  The  model  Lucian 
followed  in  these  dialogues,  as  well  in  the  style  as  in  the 
sparkling  and  playful  repartee,  was  the  Platonic  conversa 
tions,  founded  on  the  drama,  of  which  the  dialogue  may  be 
called  the  prose  representative.  Aristotle  never  adopted 
it,  perhaps  regarding  it  as  beneath  the  true  dignity  of 
philosophy.  The  dialogue,  in  fact,  was  revived  and 
improved  by  Lucian,9  the  old  traditions  of  the  AoyoTroiot 
and  Aoyoypct(£oi,  and  above  all,  the  immense  influence  of 
rhetoric  as  an  art,  having  thrown  some  discredit  on  a  style 
of  composition  which,  as  introduced  by  Plato,  had  formed 
quite  a  new  era  in  Greek  prose  composition.  For  rhetoric 
loved  to  talk,  expatiate,  and  declaim,  while  dialectic  strove 
to  refute  by  the  employment  of  question  and  answer,  often 
in  the  briefest  form. 

In  his  language,  aa  tested  by  the  best  classical  models, 
Lucian  is  at  once  elegant  and  correct.  But  he  occasionally 
indulges  in  idioms  slightly  solecistic,  as  in  the  use  of  KU.V 

5  In  the  Alexandrus  (§  25)  we  are  told  that  the  province  of  Pontus, 
due  north  of  Syria,  was  "  full  of  Christians." 

6  §   12,  v\l/tfj.eSofTa  Qebv  futyav  fa/uPporov  ovpaviiava,  vibv  Harpls, 
Tlvfvfj.a   £K   Trarpbs    (KiropfvAfj.evoi',  ev   fK   rpiuiv  KCL\   e|  tpbs  rpia,  a 
passage  which  bears  on  the  controverted  procession  "  a  Patre  Filioque. " 

7  Ibid.,  §  13.    ^Esch.,  Eum.,  265,  8f\roypd<pa>  5e  TTO.VT  eVaiTra  <ppevi. 

8  At  p.  792  Hermotimus  says  to  Lycinus  (who  must  be  assumed  to 
represent  Lucian  himself),  v/3puTT7]s  atl  av,  KO.\  OVK  ol5  '6  TI  Tra6tit> 
/u.ifft7s  <$>i\offO(pla.v    KO.\     £s    rovs  <pi\o(ro<povvTa.s  a.iroffKu>irTtis.       In 
Icaromcnippus  (§  5)  he  says  he  always  guessed  who  were  the  best 
physical   philosophers   "  by  their  sour-faced  looks,  their  paleness  of 
complexion,  and  the  length  of  their  beards."    See  also  ibid.,  §  29. 

9  He  says  (speaking  as  2i'pos  in  Bis  accttsatus,  §  34)  that  he  found 
dialogue  somewhat   out   of  repute   from  the  too  numerous  questions 
(i.e.,  employed  by  Plato),  and  brought  it  up  to  a  more  human  and 
natural  standard,  substituting  banter  and  repartee  for  dialectic  quibbles 
and  close  logical  reasoning. 


(KOI  av)  with  a  future  or  even  an  imperative,  fa/  in  place 
of  ov,  the  particle  av  misplaced  or  wrongly  added,  and  a 
subjunctive  mood  instead  of  an  optative.1  Nevertheless, 
he  evinces  a  perfect  mastery  over  a  language  as  wonderful 
in  its  inflexions  as  in  its  immense  and  varied  vocabulary ; 
and  it  is  a  well-merited  praise  of  the  author  to  say  that  to 
a  good  Greek  scholar  the  pages  of  Lucian  are  almost  as 
e  isy  and  as  entertaining  as  an  English  or  French  novel, 
lu  this  respect  they  form  a  contrast  with  the  somewhat 
"  crabbed  "  style  of  Plutarch,  many  of  whose  moral  treatises 
aro  by  no  means  easy  reading. 

Of  course  Greek,  like  every  other  language,  is  progressive, 
an;l  the  notion  of  fixing  it  to  any  given  period  as  absolutely 
tho  best  is  quite  arbitrary.  We  shall  not  be  surprised  at 
finding  in  Lucian  some  forms  and  compounds  which  were 
not  in  use  in  the  time  of  Plato  or  Demosthenes.  Thus, 
he  has  ijTrepei'Sets  for  v-rrepopas  (p.  99),  TreTre/x/teVcs  as  the 
participle  of  the  perfect  passive  of  Tre/rrrw  (p.  240),  evo-eWtKe 
the  perfect  of  ej/creuo  (p.  705),  to  which  a  purist  would 
object ;  and  there  are  occasional  tendencies  to  Latinism 
which  can  hardly  surprise  us.  From  a  writer  living  under 
Roman  rule  we  may  expect  some  Latin  words  in  his 
vocabulary,  as  SaKepSws  for  Sacerdos,  and  Roman  names 
like  Muyvos,  KeXcro?,  Ke'A^p  (CWer),  'PouTiAAiavos,  &c.  In 
the  Lexiphanes  a  long  passage  is  read  from  a  treatise 
composed  in  words  of  the  strangest  and  most  out-of-the-way 
form  and  sound,  on  hearing  which  Lucian  pretends  to  be 
almost  driven  cra?:y  (p.  342).  His  own  sentiments  on  the 
propriety  of  diction  are  shown  by  his  reproof  to  Lexiphanes 
(§  24),  "  if  anywhere  you  have  picked  up  an  out-of-the-way 
word,  or  coined  one  which  you  think  good,  you  labour  to 
adapt  the  sense  of  it,  and  think  it  a  loss  if  you  do  not 
succeed  in  dragging  it  in  somewhere,  even  when  it  is  not 
really  wanted."  The  free  use  of  such  a  vocabulary  2  even 
in  satire  shows  Lucian's  intimate  knowledge  of  the  spurious 
boaibast  which  had  begun  to  corrupt  the  classic  dialect. 

Lucian  founded  his  style,  or  obtained  his  fluency,  from 
the  successful  study  of  rhetoric,  by  which  he  appears  to 
have  made  a  good  income  from  composing  speeches  which 
attracted  much  attention.3  At  a  later  period  in  life  he 
seems  to  have  held  a  lucrative  office  in  Egypt.  When  he 
"all  but  had  one  foot  in  Charon's  boat "  (he  says  in 
Apologia,  §  1),  "he  lent  his  neck  to  be  bound  by  a  golden 
collar."  This  office  was  to  register  the  actions  and  verdicts 
of  the  law  courts,— -he  was  a  kind  of  "  Master  of  the  Rolls," 
who  had  the  custody  of  the  state  documents,  and  received 
his  salary  directly  from  the  king  (ibid.,  §  12).  He  speaks 
of  the  emoluments  as  ov  cr/xtKpos  /uto-$6s  aXXa  TroXvraXavros. 
We 'do  not  know  the  date  of  Lucian's  death,  but  he  may 
have  lived  till  about  200  A.D. 

The  extant  works  of  this  writer  are  so  numerous  that  of 
some  of  the  principal  only  a  short  sketch  can  be  given. 
To  understand  them  aright  we  must  remember  that  the 
whole  moral  code,  the  entire  "duty of  man,"  was  included, 
in  the  estimation  of  the  pagan  Greek,  in  the  various  schools 
of  philosophy.  As  these  were  generally  rivals,  and  the 
systems  they  taught  were  more  or  less  directly  antagonistic, 
truth  presented  itself  to  the  inquirer,  not  as  one,  but  as 
manifold.  The  absurdity  and  the  impossibility  of  this 
forms  the  burden  of  all  Lucian's  writings.  He  could  only 


1  Thus  in  p.  591,  Trpoe\6fj.evot  riva  ^|  a.ira.VTiav  OCTTIS  &pi(rra  Kar-rj- 
yopvjffai   kv   SoKrj,  either   SCTTIS    &j/   apta-ra  Soitrj  or  owns  apurra  av 
Soxolr)  is  required  by  the  laws  of  Attic  Gresk. 

2  In  describing  a  banquet  Lexiphanes  says  (§  7),  iror-fipia  8e  fKftro 
Ttavrola  S'TT!   rr\s  5f\<pivi?>os  rpairffas,    6   Kpv\l/tfj.eTcairos  Kal   rpvyXls 
pt-yropovpylis  euAa/3f)  exoufra  r^)l/  Kfp«ov  Kal   (So/z/SuAios  Kal  Stipoicv- 
ir€\\ov  Kal  yrjyti>ri  iroAAa  oTa  ©TjpixrArjy   &Trra,  fvpvxatirj  rf  Kal  a\\a 
fvffrofj.a,  ra  fj.fi>  <f>a)Kar)0ej/,  ra  Se  KviS66ev,  TrdvTa/J.evroi  ave/ji.oc(>6pTfjra 
Kal  ii/iievoiTTpaKa. 

•'  Bis  accusat.  (§  27),  where  Rhetoric  declares  she  had  enriched  him, 
Trp.nxa  ov  fjiiKpav  fTrtfffVfyKafjLfvt]  iro\\ovs  Kal  6av/j.a(riovs  \oyovs. 


43 

form  one  conclusion,  viz.,  that  there  is  no  such  a  thing  as 
truth. 

One  of  the  best  written  and  most  amusing  treatises  of 
antiquity  is  Lucian's  True  History,  which  forms  a  rather 
long  narrative  in  two  books.  It  is  composed,  he  says  in 
a  brief  introduction,  not  only  as  a  pastime  and  a  diversion 
from  severer  studies,  but  avowedly  as  a  satire  (OVK 
u/<w//,wS?7Tws,  p.  71)  on  the  poets  and  logograpliers  who 
have  written  so  many  marvellous  tales,  -n-oXXa  repao-ria  KO.I 
/j.v6uOT].  He  names  Ctesias  and  Homer ;  but  Hellanicus 
and  Herodotus,  perhaps  other  AoyoTrotot  still  earlier,  appear 
to  have  been  in  his  mind.4  The  only  true  statement  in 
his  History,  he  wittily  says  (p.  72),  is  that  it  contains 
nothing  but  lies  from  beginning  to  end. 

The  main  purport  of  the  story  is  to  describe  a  voyage  to 
the  moon.  He  set  out,  he  tells  us,  with  fifty  companions, 
in  a  well-provisioned  ship,  from  the  "  Pillars  of  Hercules," 
intending  to  explore  the  western  ocean.  After  eighty 
days  rough  sailing  they  came  to  an  island  on  which  they 
found  a  Greek  inscription,  "This  was  the  limit  of  the 
expedition  of  Heracles  and  Dionysus ";  and  the  visit  of 
the  wine-god  seemed  attested  by  some  miraculous  vines 
which  they  found  there.  After  leaving  the  island  they 
were  suddenly  carried  up,  ship  and  all,  by  a  whirlwind 
into  the  air,  and  on  the  eighth  day  came  in  sight  of  a  great 
round  island  shining*  with  a  bright  light  (p.  77),  and 
lying  a  little  above  the  raoon.  In  a  short  time  they  are 
arrested  by  a  troop  of  gigantic  "  horse-vultures  " 
(iTTTToyvn-oi),  and  brought  as  captives  to  the  "  man  in  the 
moon,"  who  proves  to  be  Endymion.  He  is  engaged  in  a 
war  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  sun,  which  is  ruled  by 
King  Phaethon,  the  quarrel  having  arisen  from  an  attempt 
to  colonize  the  planet  Venus  (Lucifer).  The  voyagers  are 
enlisted  as  "  Moonites,"  and  a  long  description  follows  of 
the  monsters  and  flying  dragons  engaged  in  the  contest. 
A  fight  ensues,  in  which  the  slaughter  is  so  great  that  the 
very  clouds  are  tinged  with  red  (p.  84).  The  long  descrip 
tion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon  is  extremely  droll  and 
original,  and  has  often  been  more  or  less  closely  imitated. 
After  descending  safely  into  the  sea,  the  ship  is  swallowed 
by  a  huge  "sea  serpent"  more  than  100  miles  long.  The 
adventures  during  the  long  confinement  in  the  creature's 
belly  are  most  amusing ;  but  at  last  they  sail  out  through 
the  chinks  between  the  monster's  teeth,  and  soon  find 
themselves  at  the  "  Fortunate  Islands."  Here  they  meet 
with  the  spirits  of  heroes  and  philosophers  of  antiquity,  on 
whom  the  author  expatiates  at  some  length.  The  tale 
comes  to  an  abrupt  end  with  an  allusion  to  Herodotus  in 
the  promise  that  he  "will  tell  the  rest  in  his  next  books." 
The  story  throughout  is  written  in  easy  and  elegant  Greek, 
and  shows  the  most  fertile  invention. 

Another  curious  and  rather  long  treatise  is  entitled 
Aowtos  •>?  ovo9.  The  authorship  is  regarded  as  doubtful; 
the  style,  as  it  seems  to  us,  does  not  betray  another  hand. 
Parts  of  the  story  are  coarse  enough ;  the  point  turns  on 
one  Lucius  visiting  in  a  Thessalian  family,  in  which  the 
lady  of  the  house  was  a  sorceress.  Having  seen  her 
changed  into  a  bird  by  anointing  herself  with  some  potent 
drug,  he  resolves  to  try  a  similar  experiment  on  himself, 
but  finds  that  he  has  become  an  ass,  retaining,  however, 
his  human  senses  and  memory.  The  mistake  arose  from 
his  having  filched  the  wrong  ointment ;  however,  he  is 
assured  by  the  attendant,  Palaestra,  that  if  he  can  but 
procure  roses  to  eat,  his  natural  form  will  be  restored.  In 
the  night  a  party  of  bandits  break  into  the  house  and 

4  In  p.  127  he  says  that  he  saw  punished  in  Hades,  more  severely 
than  any  other  sinners,  writers  of  false  narratives,  among  whom  were 
Ctesias  of  Cnidus  and  Herodotus.  Yet  in  the  short  essay  inscribed 
Herodotus,  p.  831,  he  wishes  it  were  possible  for  him  to  imitate  the 
many  excellencies  of  that  writer. 


44 


L  U  C  I  A  N 


carry  off  the  stolen  goods  into  the  mountains  on  the  back 
of  the  unfortunate  donkey,  who  gets  well  beaten  for 
stumbling  on  the  rough  road.  Seeing,  as  he  fancies,  some 
roses  in  a  garden,  he  goes  in  quest  of  them,  and  again  gets 
beaten  as  a  thief  by  the  gardener  (p.  585).  After  many 
adventures  with  the  bandits,  he  attempts  to  run  away,  but 
is  caught.  A  council  is  held,  and  he  is  condemned  to  die 
along  with  a  captive  girl  who  had  essayed  to  escape  on  his 
back.  Suddenly,  however,  soldiers  appear,  and  the  bandits 
are  arrested  (p.  595).  Again  the  ass  escapes  "  to  the  great 
and  populous  city  of  Beroea  in  Macedonia  "  (p.  603).  Here 
he  is  sold  to  a  strolling  conjurer,  afterwards  to  a  market- 
gardener;  and  both  experiences  are  alike  painful.  Again 
he  passes  into  the  possession  of  a  cook,  where  lie  gets  fat 
and  sleek  on  food  more  suited  to  his  concealed  humanity 
than  the  hard  fare  he  has  of  lite  lived  upon  (p.  614).  At 
•last,  during  an  exhibition  in  the  theatre,  he  sees  some  roses 
being  carried  past,  and,  making  a  successful  rush  to  devour 
them,  he  recovers  his  former  shape.  "  I  am  Lucius,"  he 
exclaims  to  the  wondering  president  of  the  exhibition, 
"and  my  brother's  name  is  Caius.  It  was  a  Thessalian 
\vit3h  that  changed  me  into  a  donkey."  Thus  all  ends 
well,  and  he  returns  safe  to  his  country.  Droll  and 
graphic  as  many  of  the  adventures  are,  they  but  too  clearly 
show  the  profligate  morals  of  the  age. 

The  treatise  On  the  Syrian  Goddess  (Mylitta,  the  moon- 
goddess,  the  Semitic  Venus)  is  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect 
in  imitation  perhaps  of  the  style  of  Herodotus,  though  the 
resemblance  is  by  no  means  close.  The  writer  professes  to 
be  an  Assyrian  (p.  452),  and  to  describe  the  wonders  in 
the  various  temples  of  Palestine  and  Syria ;  he  descants 
on  the  eunuchs  of  Syria  and  the  origin  of  the  self-imposed 
privation  of  manhood  professed  and  practised  by  the  Galli. 
The  account  of  the  temples,  altars,  and  sacrifices  is  curious, 
if  really  authentic ;  after  the  manner  of  Pausanias  it  is 
little  more  than  a  list,  with  the  reasons  in  most  cases 
added,  or  the  origin  of  the  custom  explained. 

De  Morte  Fe.regrini  is  a  narrative  of  one  Proteus,  a 
Cynic,  who  after  professing  various  doctrines,  and  among 
them  those  of  Christianity,  ended  his  own  life  by 
ascending  a  burning  pyre  (p.  357). l  The  founder  of  the 
Christian  religion  is  described  (p.  334)  as  "the  man  who 
had  been  crucified  (or  fixed  to  a  stake,  dva<r/<oAo7n.o-0eWa) 
in  Palestine,"  and  as  one  "  still  worshipped  for  having 
introduced  a  new  code  of  morals  into  life."  The  zeal  of 
the  early  converts  is  shown  by  their  flocking  to  the  prison 
whsn  Proteus  had  been  arrested,  by  the  sympathy  conveyed 
from  distant  cities  of  Asia  (p.  336),  by  contributions  of 
money  for  his  support,  and  by  their  total  indifference  to 
life;  for  "the  poor  wretches  have  persuaded  themselves 
that  they  will  live  for  ever.'1  The  founder  of  the  religion, 
"  that  first  lawgiver  of  theirs,"  says  Lucian,  "  made  them 
believe  that  they  are  all  brothers  when  once  they  have 
abjured  the  gods  of  Greece  and  worshipped  the  crucified 
man  who  is  their  teacher,  and  have  begun  to  live  according 
to  his  laws"  (p.  337). 

Bis  accusatus  is  a  dialogue  commencing  with  a  satire  on 
the  folly  of  the  popular  notion  that  the  gods  alone  are 
happy.  Zeus  is  represented  as  disproving  this  by  enume 
rating  the  many  and  heavy  duties  that  fall  to  their  lot  in 
the  government  of  the  world,  and  Herrnes  remarks  on  the 
vast  crowds  of  philosophers  of  rival  sects,  by  whose 
influence  the  respect  and  worship  formerly  paid  to  the  gods 
have  seriously  declined.  A  trial  is  supposed  to  be  held 
under  the  presidency  of  the  goddess  AI'K?;,  between  the 
Academy,  the  Porch,  the  schools  of  the  Cynics  and 
Epicureans,  and  Pleasure,  Revelry,  Virtue,  Luxury,  etc.,  as 
variously  impugned  or  defended  by  them.  Then  Conversa- 


1  It  is  open  to  controversy  whether  lie  was  not  a  martyr  at  the  stake. 


tion  and  Rhetoric  come  before  the  court,  each  having  an 
action  for  defamation  to  bring  against  Syrus  the  essayist, 
who  of  course  is  Lucian  himself  (p.  823).  His  defence  is 
heard  against  the  charges  of  both,  and  in  both  cases  he  is 
triumphantly  acquitted.  This  essay  is  brilliant  from  its 
clever  parodies  of  Plato  and  Demosthenes,  and  the  satire 
on  the  Socratic  method  of  arguing  by  short  questions  and 
answers. 

The  Lover  of  Lying  (^iXoi/^euS^s)  discusses  the  reason 
why  some  persons  seem  to  take  pleasure  in  falsehood  for 
its  own  sake,  and  when  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained 
by  it.  Under  the  category  of  lying  all  mythology  (e.g., 
that  of  Homer  and  Hesiod)  is  included,  and  the  question 
is  asked,  why  the  hearers  of  such  stories  are  amused  by 
them  1  Quack  remedies,  charms,  and  miraculous  cures  are 
included  among  the  most  popular  kinds  of  falsehood ; 
witchcraft,  spiritualism,  exorcism,  expulsion  of  devils, 
spectres,  are  discussed  in  turn,  and  a  good  ghost  story  is 
told  in  p.  57.  An  anecdote  is  given  of  Democritus,  who, 
to  show  Ids  disbelief  in  ghosts,  had  shut  himself  up  in  a 
tomb,  and  when  some  young  men,  dressed  up  with  death's 
heads,  came  to  frighten  him  at  night,  and  suddenly  appeared 
to  him  while  he  was  engaged  in  writing,  he  did  not  even 
look  up,  but  called  out  to  them,  "Stop  your  joking"  (p.  59). 
This  treatise,  a  very  interesting  one,  concludes  with  the 
reflexion  that  truth  and  sound  reason  are  the  only  remedies 
for  vain  and  superstitious  terrors. 

The  dialogue  No.vigium  sen  Vota  (nAoiov  17  e£xat/)  gives 
an  apparently  authentic  account  of  the  measurements  and 
fittings  of  an  Egyptian  ship  which  has  arrived  with  a  cargo 
of  corn  at  the  Piraeus,  driven  out  of  its  course  to  Italy  by 
adverse  winds.  The  full  length  is  180  feet,  the  breadth 
nearly  50,  the  depth  from  deck  to  the  bottom  of  the  hold 
43  feet.  The  "wishes"  turn  on  a  party  of  friends,  who 
have  been  to  see  the  ship,  declaring  what  they  would  most 
desire  to  possess.  One  would  have  the  ship  filled  with 
gold,  another  a  fine  house  with  gold  plate  ;  a  third  would 
be  a  "  tyrant "  with  a  large  force  devoted  to  his  interests ; 
a  fourth  would  like  to  make  himself  invisible,  enter  any 
house  that  he  pleased,  and  be  transported  through  the  air 
to  the  objects  of  his  affection.  After  hearing  them  all,  the 
first  speaker,  Lycinus  (Lucian),  says  that  he  is  content 
with  the  privilege  of  laughing  heartily  at  the  vanity  of 
human  wishes,  especially  when  they  are  those  of  professed 
philosophers. 

The  dialogue  between  Philo  and  Lycinus,  Convivium  scu 
Lapithx,  is  a  very  amusing  description  of  a  banquet,  at 
which  a  party  of  dignified  philosophers  quarrelled  over 
their  viands  at  a  marriage  feast,  and  came  to  blows.  The 
style  is  a  good  imitation  of  Plato,  and  the  scene  reminds 
one  of  the  "clients'  dinner"  in  the  fifth  satire  of  Juvenal. 
One  of  the  party  is  so  irritated  by  taunts  that  he  flings  a 
goblet  half  full  of  wine  at  the  head  of  another,  who  retorts 
by  spitting  in  the  face  of  the  aggressor  (p.  441).  Matters 
come  to  a  climax  by  the  attempt  of  one  of  the  guests, 
Zenothemis,  to  secure  for  himself  a  fatter  fowl  which  had 
been  served  to  his  next  neighbour  Hermon.  Each  seizes 
his  bird  and  hits  the  other  with  it  in  the  face,  at  the  same 
time  pulling  his  beard.  Then  a  general  fight  ensues,  and 
serious  wounds  are  inflicted.  The  story  is,  of  course,  a 
satire  on  philosophy,  the  favourite  topic  of  a  writer  who 
believed  neither  in  gods  nor  in  men. 

The  Piscator,  a  dialogue  between  Lucian,  Socrates, 
Pythagoras,  Empedocles,  Plato,  and  others,  commences 
with  a  general  attack  on  the  author  as  the  enemy  of 
philosophy.  Socrates  proposes  that  the  culprit  should  be 
tried,  and  that  Philosophia  should  assist  in  the  prosecution. 
Lucian  declares  thaL  he  does  not  know  where  such  a  person 
lives,  long  as  he  has  been  looking  for  her  (§  11).  She  is 
founu  at  last,  but  declares  Lucian  has  never  disparaged 


L  U  C  I  A  N 


45 


her,  but  only  impostors  and  pretenders  under  her  name 
(§  15).  He  makes  a  long  defence  (pp.  598-606),  abusing 
the  philosophers  in  the  sort  of  language  in  which  some 
schools  of  theologians  abuse  the  monks  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (§  31).  The  trial  is  held  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 
and  the  sham  philosophers,  dreading  a  verdict  against 
them,  throw  themselves  from  the  rock.  A  Cynic  flings 
away  his  scrip  in  the  hurry,  and  on  examination  it  is 
found  to  contain,  not  books  or  loaves  of  bread,  but  gold 
coins,  dice,  and  fragrant  essences  (§  44).  The  title  of 
Fisherman  is  given  to  this  witty  treatise,  because  at  the 
end  Lucian  baits  his  hook  with  a  fig  and  a  gold  coin,  and 
catches  gluttonous  strollers  in  the  city  while  seated  on  the 
wall  of  the  Acropolis. 

The  Voyage  Home  (KarctTrAous)  opens  with  the  com 
plaint  that  Charon's  boat  is  kept  waiting  for  Hermes, 
who  soon  appears  with  his  troop  of  ghosts  to  be  ferried 
over  the  infernal  river.  Among  them  is  a  rvpai/vos,  one 
Megapenthes,  who,  as  his  name  is  intended  to  express, 
mourns  greatly  over  the  life  he  has  just  left.  Amusing 
appeals  are  made  by  other  souls  for  leave  to  return  to  life, 
and  even  bribes  are  offered  to  the  presiding  goddess  of 
dsstiny,  but  Clotho  is,  of  course,  inexorable.  The  moral 
of  the  piece  is  closely  like  that  of  the  parable  of  Dives 
and  Lazarus  :  the  rich  and  prosperous  bewail  their  fate, 
while  the  poor  and  afflicted  find  rest  from  their  troubles, 
and  have  no  desire  to  return  to  them.  The  rrpawos  here 
is  the  man  clothed  in  purple  and  fine  linen,  and  Lucian 
shows  the  same  bitter  dislike  of  tyrants  which  Plato  and 
the  tragic  writers  display.  The  heavy  penalty  is  adjudged 
to  Megapenthes  that  he  may  ever  remember  in  the  other 
world  the  misdeeds  done  in  life. 

The  Sale  of  Lives  is  an  auction  held  by  Zeus  to  see  what 
price  the  lives  of  philosophers  of  the  rival  sects  will  bring. 
A  Pythagorean,  who  speaks  in  the  Ionic,  first  undergoes 
an  examination  as  to  what  he  can  teach,  and  this  contains 
an  enumeration  of  the  doctrines  usually  ascribed  to  that 
sect,  including  metempsychosis.  He  is  valued  at  7s.  6d., 
and  is  succeeded  by  Diogenes,  who  avows  himself  the 
champion  of  truth,  a  cosmopolitan  (§  8),  and  the  enemy 
of  pleasure.  Socrates  brings  two  talents,  and  is  purchased 
by  Dion,  tyrant  of  Syracuse  (§  19).  Chrysippus,  who 
gives  some  specimens  of  his  clever  quibbles,1  is  bought  for 
fifty  pounds,  Aristotle  for  nearly  a  hundred,  while  Pyrrho 
the  sceptic  (or  one  of  his  school),  who  professes  to  "  know 
nothing,"  brings  four  pounds,  "because  he  is  dull  and 
stupid  and  has  no  more  sense  than  a  grub  "  (§  27).  But 
the  man  raises  a  doubt,  "whether  or  not  he  has  really 
been  bought,"  and  refuses  to  go  with  the  purchaser  till 
he  has  fully  considered  the  matter. 

Timon  is  a  very  amusing  and  witty  dialogue.  The 
misanthrope,  once  wealthy,  has  become  a  poor  farm- 
labourer,  and  reproaches  Zeus  for  his  indifference  to  the 
injustice  of  man.  Zeus  declares  that  the  noisy  disputes 
in  Attica  have  so  disgusted  him  that  he  has  not  been 
there  for  a  long  time  (§  9).  He  tells  Hermes  to  conduct 
Plutus  to  visit  Timon,  and  see  what  can  be  done  to  help 
him.  Plutus,  who  at  first  refuses  to  go,  is  persuaded  after 
a  long  conversation  with  Hermes,  and  Timon  is  found  by 
them  digging  in  his  field  (§  31).  Poverty  is  unwilling  to 
resign  her  votary  to  wealth ;  and  Timon  himself,  who  has 
become  a  thorough  misanthrope,  objects  to  be  made  rich 
again,  and  is  with  difficulty  persuaded  to  turn  up  with  his 
mattock  a  crock  of  gold  coins.  Now  that  he  has  once 
more  become  rich,  his  former  flatterers,  who  had  long  left 

1  E.g.,  §  25,  "A  stone  is  a  body  ;  a  livrng  creature  is  a  body  ; 
you  are  a  living  creature  ;  therefore  you  are  a  stone."  Again  :  "Is 
every  body  possessed  of  life?"  "No."  "Is  a  stone  possessed  of 
life?"  "No."  "  Are  you  a  body  ?  "  "Yes."  "  A  living  body  ?  " 
"  Yes."  "  Then,  if  a  living  body,  you  are  not  a  stone." 


him,  come  cringing  with  their  congratulations  and  respects, 
but  they  are  all  driven  off  with  broken  heads  or  pelted 
with  stones.  Between  this  dialogue  and  the  Plutus  of 
Aristophanes  there  are  many  close  resemblances. 

Hermotimus  (pp.  739-831)  is  one  of  the  longer  dialogues, 
Hermotimus,  a  student  of  the  Stoic  philosophy  for  twenty 
years  (§  2),  and  Lucian  (Lycinus)  being  the  interlocutors. 
The  long  time — forty  years  at  the  least — required  for 
climbing  up  to  the  temple  of  virtue  and  happiness,  and 
the  short  span  of  life,  if  any,  left  for  the  enjoyment  of  it, 
are  discussed.  That  the  greatest  philosophers  do  not 
always  attain  perfect  indifference,  the  Stoic  ultimatum,  is 
shown  by  the  anecdote  of  one  who  dragged  his  pupil  into 
court  to  make  him  pay  his  fee  (§  9),  and  again  by  a 
violent  quarrel  with  another  at  a  banquet  (§11).  Virtue 
is  compared  to  a  city  with  just,  and  good,  and  contented 
inhabitants  ;  but  so  many  offer  themselves  as  guides  to  the 
right  road  to  virtue  that  the  inquirer  is  bewildered  (§  26). 
What  is  truth,  and  who  are  the  right  teachers  of  it,  still 
remains  undetermined.  The  question  is  argued  at  length, 
and  illustrated  by  a  peculiar  custom  of  watching  the  pairs 
of  athletes  and  setting  aside  the  reserved  combatant 
(TrapeSpo?)  at  the  Olympian  games  by  the  marks  on-  the 
ballots  (§§  40-43).  This,  it  is  argued,  cannot  be  done  till 
all  the  ballots  have  been  examined  ;  so  a  man  cannot  select 
the  right  way  till  he  has  tried  all  the  ways  to  virtue.  But 
to  know  the  doctrines  of  all  the  sects  is  impossible  in  the 
term  of  a  life  (§  49).  To  take  a  taste  of  each,  like  trying 
a  sample  of  wine,  will  not  do,  because  the  doctrines  taught 
are  not,  like  the  crock  of  wine,  the  same  throughout,  but 
vary  or  advance  day  by  day  (§  59).  A  suggestion  is  made 
(§  68)  that  the  searcher  after  truth  should  begin  by  taking 
lessons  in  the  science  of  discrimination,  so  as  to  be  a  good 
judge  of  truth  before  testing  the  rival  claims.  But  who 
is  a  good  teacher  of  such  a  science1?  (§  70).  The  general 
conclusion  of  this  well-argued  inquiry  is  that  philosophy 
is  not  worth  the  pursuit.  "  If  I  ever  again,"  says 
Hermotimus,  "meet  a  philosopher  on  the  road,  I  will  shun 
him  as  I  would  a  mad  dog." 

The  Alexander  or  False  Prophet  is  a  severe  exposure  of 
a  clever  rogue  who  seems  to  have  incurred  the  personal 
enmity  of  Lucian  (pp.  208-265).  Born  at  Abonoteichus  in 
Bithynia,  a  town  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  he 
is  denounced  as  having  filled  all  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia  with  his  villainy  and  plundering.  Handsome,  clever, 
and  unprincipled,  he  had  been  instructed  in  the  arts  of 
imposture  by  one  of  the  disciples  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 
Trusting  to  the  natural  credulity  of  Asiatics  (§  9),  he  sets 
up  an  oracle  in  his  native  town,  having  buried  some  brazen 
tablets  which  pretended  that  ^Esculapius  would  be  wor 
shipped  in  a  temple  there.  A  long  account  is  given  of 
the  frauds  and  deceptions  of  this  pretended  hierophant, 
and  the  narrative  ends  with  his  treacherous  attempt  to 
drown  Lucian  off  the  coast  of  Amastris  by  a  secret  order 
given  to  the  pilot, — a  design  which  was  frustrated  by  the 
honesty  of  the  man  (§  56). 

The  Anacharsis  is  a  dialogue  between  Solon  and  the 
Scythian  philosopher,  who  has  come  to  Athens  on  purpose 
to  learn  the  nature  of  the  Greek  institutions.  Seeing  the 
young  men  performing  athletic  exercises  in  the  Lyceum, 
he  expresses  his  surprise  at  such  a  waste  of  energy  and  the 
endurance  of  so  much  useless  pain.  This  gives  Socrates 
an  opportunity  of  descanting  at  length  on  training  as  a 
discipline,  and  emulation  as  a  motive  for  excelling.  Love 
of  glory,  Solon  says,  is  one  of  the  chief  goods  in  life. 
The  argument  is  rather  ingenious  and  well  put ;  the  style 
reminds  us  of  the  minor  essays  of  Xenophon. 

In  all,  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  extant  treatises  of  Lucian 
(excluding  about  fifty  epigrams  and  two  iambic  poems  of  no  great 
merit)  are  considered  genuine.  We  have  given  a  brief  account  of 


46 


L  U  C  —  L  U  C 


some  of  the  longest  and  best,  but  many  others,  e.g.,  Prometheus, 
Menippus,  Life  of  Vcmonax,  Toxaris,  Zeus  Tragcedus,  The  Dream 
or  the  Cock,  Icaromenippus  (an  amusing  satire  on  the  physical 
philosophers),  are  of  considerable  literary  value.  The  excellent 
edition  of  C.  Jacobitz,  in  the  Teubner  series,  which  is  furnished 
with  a  very  complete  index,  places  the  text  in  the  student's  hand 
in  a  much  more  satisfactory  state  than  has  yet  fallen  to  the  lot  of 
riutarch  in  his  Opera  Moralia.  (F.  A.  P.) 

LUCIAN,  the  martyr,  was  born,  like  the  famous  heathen 
writer  of  the  same  native,  at  Samosata.  His  parents,  who 
were  Christians,  died  when  he  was  in  his  twelfth  year. 
In  his  "youth  he  studied  under  Macarius  of  Edessa,  and 
after  receiving  baptism  he  adopted  a  strictly  ascetic  life, 
and  devoted  himself  with  zeal  to  the  continual  study  of 
Scripture.  Settling  at  Antioch,  he  became  a  presbyter,  and, 
while  supporting  himself  by  his  skill  as  a  swift  writer, 
became  celebrated  as  a  teacher,  pupils  crowding  to  him 
from  all  quarters,  so  that  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  famous  theological  school  of  Antioch.  He  did  not 
escape  suspicion  of  heresy,  and  is  represented  as  the  con 
necting  link  between  Paul  of  Samosata  and  Arius.  Indeed, 
on  the  deposition  of  the  former,  he  was  excluded  from 
ecclesiastical  fellowship  by  three  successive  bishops  of 
Antioch,  while  the  latter  seems  to  have  been  among  his 
pupils  (Theodoret,  //.  U.,  i.  3,  4).  He  was,  however, 
restored  before  the  outbreak  of  persecution,  and  the 
reputation  won  by  his  high  character  and  learning  was 
confirmed  by  his  courageous  martyrdom.  He  was  carried 
to  Nicomedia  before  the  cruel  Maximin,  and  persisting  in 
his  faith  perished  312  A.D.,  under  torture  and  hunger, 
which  he  refused  to  satisfy  with  food  offered  to  idols.  His 
remains  were  conveyed  to  Drepanum  in  Bithynia,  and 
under  Constantine  the  town  was  founded  anew  in  his 
honour  with  the  name  of  Helenopolis,  and  exempted  from 
taxes  by  the  emperor  (327  A.D.,  see  Chron.  Pasch.,  Bonn 
ed.,  p.  527),  Here,  on  the  day  after  Epiphany  387  A.D. 
(the  clay  on  which  his  martyrdom  was  commemorated), 
Chrysostom  delivered  the  panegyrical  homily  from  which, 
with  notices  in  Eusebius  (//.  E.,  ix.  6),  Theodoret  (loc.  cit.), 
and  the  other  ecclesiastical  historians,  the  life  by  Jerome 
(Vir.  III.,  cap,  77),  but  especially  from  the  account  by  S. 
Metaphrastes  (cited  at  length  in  Bernhardy's  notes  to 
Suidas,  s.v.  voOevei),  the  facts  above  given  are  derived.  See 
also,  for  the  celebration  of  his  day  in  the  Syriac  churches, 
Wright,  Cat.  of  Syr.  MSS.,  p.  283. 

Jerome  says,  "  Feruntur  eius  de  Fide  libelli  et  breves  ad  non- 
nullos  epistolse  ";  but  only  a  short  fragment  of  one  epistle  remains 
(Chron.  Pasch.,  p.  516).  The  authorship  of  a  confession  of  faith 
ascribed  to  Lucian  and  put  forth  at  the  semi-Arian  synod  of 
Antioch  (341  A.D.)  is  questioned.  Lucian's  most  important  liter 
ary  labour  wras  his  edition  of  the  Septuagiut  corrected  by  the 
Hebrew  text,  which,  according  to  Jerome  (Adv.  Ruf.,  ii.  77),  was  in 
current  use  from  Constantinople  to  Antioch.  That  the  edition  of 
Lucian  is  represented  by  the  text  used  by  Chrysostom  and 
Theodoret,  as  well  as  by  certain  extant  MSS. ,  such  as  the  Arundelian 
of  the  British  Museum,  was  proved*  by  F.  Field  (Prol.  ad  Origenis 
Hcxapla,  cap.  ix.),  who  points  out  that  Lucian  filled  up  lacunje  of 
the  Septuiigint  text  as  compared  with  the  Hebrew  from  the  other 
Greek  translations,  that  his  method  was  harmonistic,  and  that  he 
sometimes  indulged  in  paraphrastic  additions  and  other  changes. 
Before  the  publication  of  Field's  Hcxapla,  Lagarde  had  already 
directed  his  attention  to  the  Antiochian  text  (as  that  of  Lucian  may 
be  called).  See  his  Symmicta  (ii.  142),  tmdAnkundir/ung  ciner  neucn 
Ausrj.  d.  gr.  Uebersetzung  dcs  A.  T.  (1882),  in  which  an  edition  of 
this  recension  is  promised,  and  the  means  for  effecting  it  described. 
The  accomplishment  of  this  task  may  be  looked  to  as  the  'first 
step  in  the  process  of  tracing  backwards  the  history  of  the  Septua- 
gint. 

From  a  statement  of  Jerome  in  his  preface  to  the  gospels  it  seems 
probable  that  Lucian  had  also  a  share  in  fixing  the  Syrian  recension 
of  the  New  Testament  text,  but  of  this  it  is  impossible  to  speak 
with  certainty.  Compare  the  introductory  volume  of  West- 
cott  and  Hort's  New  Testament,  p.  138. 

LUCIFER,  bishop  of  Cagliari  (hence  called  Calaritanus 
or  rather  Car  edit  anus),  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  cause 
of  Athanasius,  after  the  unfavourable  result  of  the  synod 


of  Aries  in  353  volunteered  to  go  to  the  court  and 
endeavour  to  obtain  a  new  and  impartial  council ;  lie  was 
accordingly  sent  by  Pope  Liberius,  along  with  Pancratius 
the  presbyter  and  Hilarius  the  deacon,  but  did  not  suc 
ceed  in  preventing  the  condemnation  of  Athanasius,  which 
was  renewed  at  Milan  in  355.  For  his  own  persist 
ent  adherence  to  the  orthodox  creed  he  was  banished 
to  Germanicia  in  Commagene;  he  afterwards  lived  at 
Eleutheropolis  in  Palestine,  and  finally  in  the  upper 
Thebaid.  His  exile  came  to  an  end  with  the  publication 
of  Julian's  edict  in  362.  From  363  until  his  death  in  371 
he  lived  at  Cagliari  in  a  state  of  voluntary  separation  from 
ecclesiastical  fellowship  with  his  former  friends  Eusebius 
of  Vercelli,  Athanasius,  and  the  rest,  on  account  of  their 
mild  decision  at  the  synod  of  Alexandria  in  362  with 
reference  to  the  treatment  of  those  who  had  unwillingly 
Arianized  under  the  persecutions  of  Constantius.  The 
Luciferian  sect  thus  founded  did  not  continue  to  subsist 
long  after  the  death  of  its  leader.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
it  ever  formulated  any  distinctive  doctrine ;  certainly  it 
developed  none  of  any  importance.  The  memory  of 
Lucifer  is  still  cherished  in  Sardinia ;  but,  although  popu 
larly  regarded  there  as  a  saint,  he  has  never  been 
canonized. 

The  controversial  writings  of  Lucifer,  dating  from  his  exile,  are 
chiefly  remarkable  for  their  passionate  zeal  and  for  the  boldness  and 
violence  of  the  language  addressed  to  the  reigning  emperor,  whom 
he  did  not  scruple  to  call  the  enemy  of  God  and  a  second  Saul, 
Ahab,  and  J-eroboam.  Their  titles,  in  the  most  probable  chrono 
logical  order,  are  De  non  parccndis  in  Deum  ddiiiqucntibus,  De 
rcgibus  apostaticis,  Ad  Constantium  Augustum  pro  Athanasio  libri 
ii. ,  De  non  conveniendo  cum  hsercticis,  and  Moriendum  csse  pro 
Fil'io  Dei.  Their  quotations  of  Scripture  are  of  considerable  value  to 
the  critical  student  of  the  Latin  text  before  Jerome.  They  were 
first  collected  and  edited  by  Tilius  (Paris,  1586),  and  afterwards  re 
printed  in  the  Bibliotheca  Pat  rum  (1618) ;  the  best  edition  is  that  of 
the  brothers  Colet  (Venice,  1778). 

LUCILIUS.  Among  the  early  Roman  poets,  of  whose 
writings  only  fragments  have  been  preserved,  Lucilius  was 
second  in  importance  to  Ennius.  If  he  did  not,  like  the  epic 
poet  of  the  republic,  touch  the  imagination  of  his  country 
men,  and  give  expression  to  their  highest  ideal  of  national 
life,  he  exactly  hit  their  ordinary  mood,  and  expressed  the 
energetic,  critical,  and  combative  temper  which  they  carried 
into  political  and  social  life.  He  was  thus  regarded  as 
the  most  genuine  literary  representative  of  the  pure 
Roman  spirit.  The  reputation  which  he  enjoyed  in  the 
best  ages  of  Roman  literature  is  proved  by  the  terms  in 
which  Cicero  and  Horace  speak  of  him.  Persius,  Juvenal, 
and  Quintilian  vouch  for  the  admiration  with  which  he 
was  regarded  in  the  first  century  of  the  empire.  The 
popularity  which  he  enjoyed  in  his  own  time  is  attested 
by  the  fact  that  at  his  death  in  102  B.C.,  although  he  had 
filled  none  of  the  offices  of  state,  he  received  the  honour  of 
a  public  funeral. 

His  chief  claim  to  distinction  is  his  literary  originality. 
He  alone  among  Roman  writers  established  a  new  form  of 
composition.  He  may  be  called  the  inventor  of  poetical 
satire,  as  he  was  the  first  to  impress  upon  the  rude  inartistic 
medley,  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  satura,  that 
character  of  aggressive  and  censorious  criticism  of  persons, 
morals,  manners,  politics,  literature,  &c.,  which  the  word 
satire  has  ever  since  denoted.  In  point  of  form  the  satire 
of  Lucilius  owed  nothing  to  the  Greeks.  It  was  a 
legitimate  development  of  an  indigenous  dramatic  enter 
tainment,  popular  among  the  Romans  before  the  first 
introduction  of  the  forms  of  Greek  art  among  them ;  and 
it  seems  largely  also  to  have  employed  the  form  of  the 
familiar  epistle  which  circumstances  had  developed  among 
them  about  the  time  when  Lucilius  flourished.  But  the 
style,  substance,  and  spirit  of  his  writings  were  apparently 
as  ( riginal  as  the  form.  He  seems  to  have  commenced  hi^ 


LUCILIUS 


47 


poetical  career  by  ridiculing  and  parodying  the  conventional 
language  of  epic  and  tragic  poetry,  and  to  have  used  in  his 
own  writings  the  language  commonly  employed  in  the  social 
intercourse  of  educated  men.  Even  his  frequent  use  of 
Greek  words,  phrases,  and  quotations,  reprehended  by 
Horace,  was  probably  taken  from  the  actual  practice  of 
men,  powerfully  stimulated  by  the  new  learning,  who 
found  their  own  speech  as  yet  inadequate  to  give  free 
expression  to  the  new  ideas  and  impressions  which  they 
derived  from  their  first  contact  with  Greek  philosophy, 
rhetoric,  and  poetry.  Further,  he  not  only  created  a  style 
of  his  own,  but,  instead  of  taking  the  substance  of  his 
writings  from  Greek  poetry,  or  from  a  remote  past,  he 
treated  of  the  familiar  matters  of  daily  life,  of  the  personal 
interests  and  peculiarities  of  himself  or  his  contemporaries, 
of  the  politics,  the  wars,  the  government  of  the  provinces, 
the  administration  of  justice,  the  fashions  and  tastes,  the 
eating  and  drinking,  the  money-making  and  money-spend 
ing,  the  scandals  and  vices,  the  airs  and  affectations,  which 
made  up  the  public  and  private  life  of  Rome  in  the- last 
quarter  of  the  second  century  before  our  era.  This  he  did 
in  a  singularly  frank,  independent,  and  courageous  spirit, 
with  no  private  ambition  to  serve,  or  party  cause  to  advance, 
but  with  an  honest  desire  to  expose  the  iniquity  or  incom 
petence  of  the  governing  body,  the  sordid  aims  of  the 
middle  class,  and  the  corruption  and  venality  of  the  city 
mob.  There  was  nothing  of  stoical  austerity  or  of  rhetorical 
indignation  in  the  tone  in  which  he  treated  the  vices  and 
follies  of  his  time.  His  character  and  tastes  were  much 
more  akin  to  those  of  Horace  than  of  either  Persius  or 
Juvenal.  But  he  was  what  Horace  was  not,  a  thoroughly 
good  hater ;  and  he  lived  at  a  time  when  the  utmost  freedom 
of  speech  and  the  most  unrestrained  indulgence  of  public 
and  private  animosity  were  the  characteristics  of  men  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  affairs.  Although  Lucilius  took 
no  active  part  in  the  public  life  of  his  time,  he  regarded 
it  in  the  spirit,  not  of  a  recluse  or  a  mere  student  of  books, 
but  of  a  man  of  the  world  and  of  society,  as  well  as  a  man 
of  letters.  His  ideal  of  public  virtue  and  private  worth 
had  been  formed  by  intimate  association  with  the  greatest 
and  best  of  the  soldiers  and  statesmen  of  an  older  gener 
ation. 

The  dates  assigned  by  Jerome  for  his  birth  and  death 
are  148  and  103  or  102  B.C.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
reconcile  the  first  of  these  dates  with  other  facts  recorded 
of  him.  We  learn  from  Velleius  that  he  served  under 
Scipio  at  the  siege  of  Numantia  in  the  year  134  B.C.  We 
learn  from  Horace  that  he  lived  on  the  most  intimate 
terms  of  friendship  with  Scipio  and  Laelius,  and  that  he 
celebrated  the  exploits  and  virtues  of  the  former  in  his 
satires.  Fragments  of  those  books  of  his  satires  which 
seem  to  have  been  first  given  to  the  world  (books 
xxvi;-xxix.)  clearly  indicate  that  they  were  written  in  tho 
lifetime  of  Scipio.  Some  of  these  bring  the  poet  before 
us  as  either  corresponding  with,  or  engaged  in  controversial 
conversation  with,  his  great  friend.  One  line — 

"  Fercrcpa  pugnam  Topilli,  facta  Cornell  cane—" 
in  which  the  defeat  of  M.  Popillius  Lsenas,  in  138  B.C.,  is 
contrasted  with  the  subsequent  success  of  Scipio,  bears 
the  stamp  of  having  been  written  while  the  news  of  the 
capture  of  Numantia  was  still  fresh.  It  is  in  the  highest 
degree  improbable  that  Lucilius  served  in  the  army  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  ;  it  is  still  more  unlikely  that  he  could  have 
boen  admitted  into  the  familiar  intimacy  of  Scipio  and 
Lrelius  at  that  age.  It  seems  a  moral  impossibility  that 
between  the  age  of  fifteen  and  nineteen — i.e.,  between 
133  B.C.  and  129  B.C.,  the  year  of  Scipio's  death — he  could 
have  come  before  the  world  as  the  author  of  an  entirely 
new  kind  of  composition,  and  one  which,  to  be  at  all 
successful,  demands  especially  maturity  of  judgment  and 


experience.  It  may  further  be  said  that  the  well-known 
words  of  Horace,  in  which  he  characterizes  the  vivid 
portraiture  of  his  life,  character,  and  thoughts,  which 
Lucilius  bequeathed  to  the  world, 

"  quo  fit  ut  omnis 

Votiva  patcat  veluti  descripta  tabella 

Vita  scnis,"  1 

lose  much  of  their  force  unless  senis  is  to  be  taken  in  its 
ordinary  sense, — which  it  cannot  be  if  Lucilius  died  at  the 
age  of  forty-six.  Two  explanations  have  been  given  of  the 
error.  One  is  that,  from  a  similarity  in  the  names  of  the 
consuls  for  the  years  180  and  148  B.C.,  Jerome  had  con 
fused  the  one  year  with  the  other,  and  thus  that  the  date 
of  the  birth  of  Lucilius  must  be  thrown  back  thirty-two 
years.  He  would  thus  have  been  nearly  fifty  when  he 
served  at  Numantia,  and  when  he  first  began  to  write 
satire.  But  the  terms  which  Horace  applies  to  the  intimacy 
of  Lucilius  and  Scipio,  such  as  "discincti  ludere,"  indicate 
the  relations  of  an  older  to  a  much  younger  man ;  and  the 
verve  and  tone  of  his  satires  are  those  of  a  man  not  so  far 
advanced  in  years  as  he  would  have  been  if  born  in  the 
year  180  B.C.  A  simpler  explanation  of  the  error  is  sup 
ported  by  Mr  Munro,  in  the  Journal  of  Philology,  No/xvL 
He  supposes  that  Jerome  must  have  written  the  words 
"  anno  xlvi  "  for  "  anno  Ixiv  "  or  "  Ixvi "  ;  which  would 
make  the  birth  of  Lucilius  eighteen  or  twenty  years  earlier 
than  that  usually  assigned.  Lucilius  would  thus  have 
been  about  thirty-three  or  thirty-five  years  of  age  when 
lie  served  at  Numantia,  and  two  or  three  years  older  when 
he  gave  his  first  satires  to  the  world.  As  he  lived  for 
about  thirty  years  longer,  and  as  he  seems  to  have  con 
tinued  the  composition  of  his  satires  during  most  of  what 
remained  of  his  life,  and  as  it  was  his  practice  to  commit 
to  them  all  his  private  thoughts,  the  words  of  Horace 
would  naturally  and  truthfully  describe  the  record  of  his 
observation  and  experience  between  the  age  of  thirty-five 
and  his  death.  His  birthplace  was  Suessa  Aurunca  in 
Campania,  from  which  circumstance  Juvenal  describes  him 
as  "magnus  Auruncse  alumnus."  He  belonged  to  the 
equestrian  order,  a  fact  indicated  by  Horace's  notice  of 
himself  as  "infra  Lucili  censum."  He  was  granduncle 
to  Pompey,  on  the  mother's  side.  Though  not  himself 
belonging  to  any  of  the  great  senatorian  families,  he  was 
in  a  position  to  associate  with  them  on  equal  terms,  and 
to  criticize  them  with  independence.  And  this  circum 
stance  contributed  to  the  boldness,  originality,  and 
thoroughly  national  character  of  his  literary  work.  Had 
he  been  a  "semi-Grrecus,"  like  Ennius  and  Pacuvius,  or 
of  humble  origin,  like  Plautus,  Terence,  or  Accius,  he 
would  scarcely  have  ventured,  at  a  time  when  the 
senatorian  power  was  strongly  in  the  ascendant,  to  revive 
the  role  which  had  proved  disastrous  to  Nsevius ;  nor 
would  he  have  had  the  intimate  knowledge  of  the  political 
and  social  life  of  his  day  which  fitted  him  to  be  its  painter. 
Another* circumstance  determining  the  bent  of  his  mind  to 
satire  was  the  character  of  the  time  in 'which  he  began  the 
work  of  his  life.  The  origin  of  Roman  political  and  social 
satire  is  to  be  traced  to  the  same  disturbing  and  disorganiz 
ing  forces  which  led  to  the  revolutionary  projects  and 
legislation  of  the  Gracchi. 

The  remains  of  Lucilius  extend  to  about  eleven  hundred  lines. 
But  much  the  largest  number  of  his  fragments  are  unconnected 
lines,  preserved  by  late  grammarians,  as  illustrative  of  peculiar 
verbal  usages.  lie  was,  for  his  time,  a  voluminous  as  well  as  a  very 
discursive  writer.  He  left  behind  him  thirty  books  of  satires,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  each  book,  like  the  books  of  Horace 
and  Juvenal,  was  composed  of  different  pieces.  The  order  in  which 
they  were  known  to  the  grammarians  was  not  that  in  which  they 
were  written.  The  earliest  in  order  of  composition  were  probably 

1  "And  so  it  happens  that  the  whole  life  of  the  old  man  stands 
clearly  before  us,  as  if  it  were  represented  on  a  votive  picture." 


48 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


those  numbered  from  xxvi.  to  xxix.,  which  were  written  in  the 
trochaic  and  iambic  metres  that  had  been  employed  by  Ennius 
and  Paeuvius  in  their  Saturse.  In  these  he  male  those  criticisms 
on  the  older  tragic  and  epic  poets  of  which  Horace  and  other 
ancient  writers  speak.  In  them  too  he  speaks  of  the  Numantine 
War  as  recently  finished,  and  of  Scipio  as  still  living.  Book  i.,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  which  the  philosopher  Carneades,  who  died  in 
123  B.C.,  is  spoken  of  as  dead,  must  have  been  written  after  the 
death  of  Scipio.  With  the  exception  of  books  xxvi. -xxix.,  and  one 
satire  in  which  he  seems  to  have  made  an  experiment  in  the 
unfamiliar  elegiac  metre,  all  the  satires  of  Lucilius  were  written 
in  hexameters.  So  far  as  an  opinion  can  be  formed  from  a 
number  of  unconnected  fragments,  he  seems  to  have  written  the 
trochaic  tetrameter  with  a  smoothness,  clearness,  and  simplicity 
which  he  never  attained  in  handling  the  hexameter.  The  longer 
fragments  produce  the  impression  of  great  discursiveness  and  care 
lessness,  but  at  the  same  time  of  considerable  force.  The  words  of 
Horace,  "fluere  lutulentum,"  seem  exactly  to  express  the  character 
of  his  style.  He  appears,  in  the  composition  of  his  various  pieces, 
to  have  followed  no  settled  plan,  but  to  have  treated  everything 
that  occurred  to  him  in  the  most  desultory  fashion,  sometimes 
adopting  the  form  of  dialogue,  sometimes  that  of  an  epistle  or  an  im 
aginary  discourse,  and  often  to  have  spoken  in  his  own  name,  giving 
an  account  of  his  travels  and  adventures,  or  of  amusing  scenes  that 
lie  had  witnessed,  or  expressing  the  results  of  his  private  medita 
tions  and  experiences.  Like  Horace  he  largely  illustrated  his  own 
observations  by  personal  anecdotes  and  fables.  The  fragments 
clearly  show  how  often  Horace  has  imitated  him,  not  only  in 
expression,  but  in  the  form  of  his  satires  (see  for  instance  i.  5  and 
ii.  2),  in  the  topics  which  he  treats  of,  and  the  class  of  social  vices 
and  the  types  of  character  which  he  satirizes.  For  students  of  Latin 
literature,  the  chief  interest  of  studying  the  fragments  of  Lucilius 
consists  in  the  light  which  they  throw  on  the  aims  and  methods  of 
Horace  in  the  composition  of  his  satires,  and,  though  not  to  the 
same  extent,  of  his  epistles.  But  they  are  important  also  as 
materials  for  linguistic  study  ;  and  they  have  a  considerable  his 
torical  value  as  throwing  light  on  the  feeling,  temper,  circum 
stances,  and  character  of  a  most  interesting  time,  of  which  there  is 
scarcely  any  other  contemporary  record. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Fragments  is  that  of  L.  Miiller  (1872). 
A  collection  of  them  by  Lachmann  has  appeared  since  his  death. 
The  emendation  of  these  fragments  still  employs  the  ingenuity  of 
both  German  and  English  scholars.  Important  contributions  to 
the  subject  have  been  made  by  Mr  Munro  in  the  Journal  of 
Philology.  (W.  Y.  S.) 

LUCIUS,  the  name  of  three  popes. 

Lucius  I,  whose  pontificate  of  about  eight  months 
(253-54)  fell  between  those  of  Cornelius  and  Stephen  I., 
had  been  one  of  the  presbyters  who  accompanied  Cornelius 
when  he  withdrew  from  Rome.  After  his  own  election 
also  he  appears  to  have  lived  for  some  time  in  exile,  but 
ultimately  to  have  been  permitted  to  return.  No  facts  of 
bis  official  life  have  been  recorded,  but  he  is  referred  to  in 
several  letters  of  .Cyprian  as  having  been  in  agreement 
with  his  predecessor  Cornelius  in  preferring  the  milder 
view  on  the  question  as  to  how  the  penitent  lapsed  should 
be  treated.  The  manner  of  his  death  is  uncertain ;  ac 
cording  to  some  accounts  he  was  decapitated.  In  the 
Ccitalogus  Liberianus  and  in  the  Catalogus  Corbeiensis  he 
is  said  to  have  been  pope  for  more  than  three  years ;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  co'rrectness  of  the  statement 
of  Eusebiu?,  that  his  pontificate  was  of  less  than  eight 
months'  duration.  Like  all  the  early  popes  he  has  been 
canonized  in  the  Church  of  Rome  ;  and  he  is  commemorated 
as  a  martyr  on  March  4. 

Lucius  II.  (Gherardo  de  Caccianimici),  a  Bolognese, 
succeeded  Celestine  II.  on  March  4,  1144.  Soon  after  his 
accession  the  people  of  Rome  chose  a  patrician,  for  whom 
they  claimed  the  temporal  sovereignty ;  Lucius  at  the 
head  of  the  oligarchical  party  appealed  to  arms,  and 
perished  in  an  attempt  to  storm  the  Capitol  on  February 
25,  1145.  He  was  succeeded  by  Eugenius  III. 

Lucius  III.  (Ubaldo  Allucingoli),  a  native  of  Lucca, 
was  bishop  of  Ostia  and  Velletri  when  he  was  chosen  to 
succeed  Alexander  III.  on  September  1,  1181.  For  six 
months  he  lived  at  Rome,  but  in  March  1182  he  was 
driven  forth  by  rebellion,  and  resumed  his  abode  at 
Velletri ;  he  afterwards  lived  at  Anagni,  and  finally  at 


Verona.  While  at  the  last-named  place  he  pronounced 
sentence  of  excommunication  against  the  Cathari,  Paterines, 
Humiliati,  Waldensians,  and  Arnoldists  in  1184;  but 
"left  the  papal  thunders  to  their  own  unaided  effects." 
He  died  at  Verona  on  November  25,  1185,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Urban  III. 

LUCKE,  GOTTFRIED  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  (1791- 
1855),  theologian,  was  born  on  August  24,  1791,  at 
Egeln  near  Magdeburg,  where  his  father  was  a  merchant, 
received  his  early  education  at  the  Magdeburg  gymnasium, 
and  studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Gottingen  (1810-13). 
In  1813  he  became  repetent  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1814  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  philosophy  from  Halle  ; 
in  1816  he  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  licentiate 
in  theology,  and  qualified  as  "  privatdocent."  He  soon 
became  intimate  with  Schleiermacher  and  De  Wette, 
and  was  associated  with  them  in  1818  in  the  redaction 
of  the  Theologische  Zeitschrift.  Meanwhile  his  lectures 
and  publications  (among  the  latter  a  Grundriss  der 
NeictestamenUichen  Hermeneutik,  1816)  had  brought  him 
into  considerable  repute,  and  he  was  appointed  professor 
extraordinarius  in  the  new  university  of  Bonn  in  the 
spring  of  1818;  in  the  following  autumn  he  became 
professor  ordinarius.  From  Bonn,  where  he  had  Augusti, 
Gieseler,  and  Nitzsch  for  colleagues,  he  was  called  to 
Golitingen  to  succeed  Staudlin  in  ]  827.  Here  he  remained, 
declining  all  further  calls  elsewhere,  as  to  Erlangen,  Kiel, 
Halle,  Tubingen,  Jena,  arid  Leipsic,  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  February  14,  1855. 

Liicke,  who  was  one  of  the  most  learned,  many-sided,  and  influ 
ential  of  the  so-called  "mediation"  school  of  evangelical  theo 
logians,  is  now  known  chiefly  by  his  principal  work,  an  Exposition 
of  the  Writings  of  St  John,  of  which  the  first  edition,  in  four 
volumes,  appeared  in  1820-32  ;  it  has  since  passed  through  two  new 
and  improved  editions  (the  last  volume  of  the  third  edition  by 
Berth eau,  1856).  He  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent  maintainers  of 
the  Johannine  authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel ;  in  connexion  with 
this  thesis  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  argue  for  the  early  date  and 
non-apostolic  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse. 

LUCKENWALDE,  a  busy  little  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  district  of  Potsdam,  lies  on  the 
river  Nuthe  and  on  the  Berlin  and  Anhalt  Railway,  30 
miles  to  the  south-west  of  Berlin.  Its  cloth  and  wool  manu 
factories  are  among  the  most  extensive  in  Prussia,  and  it 
also  contains  cotton-printing  works,  dye-works,  machine 
shops,  and  numerous  other  industrial  establishments.  The 
population  in  1880  was  14,706.  The  site  of  Luckenwalde 
was  occupied  in  the  12th  century  by  a  Cistercian  monastery, 
but  the  village  did  not  spring  up  till  the  reign  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  It  was  made  a  town  in  1808. 

LUCKNOW,  a  district  of  Oudh,  in  the  division  or 
comrnissionership  of  Lucknow,1  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  lieutenant-governor  of  the  North-Western  Provinces, 
India,  lying  between  26°  30'  and  27°  9'  30"  N.  lat.,  and 
between  80°  36'  and  81°  15'  30"  E.  long.,  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Hardoi  and  Sftapur  districts,  on  the  E.  by  Bara 
Banki,  on  the  S.  by  Rai  Bareli,  and  on  the  W.  by  U"nao. 
The  general  aspect  of  the  country  is  that  of  an  open 
champaign,  well  studded  with  villages,  finely  wooded,  and 
in  parts  most  fertile  and  highly  cultivated.  In  the 
vicinity  of  rivers,  however,  stretch  extensive  barren  sandy 
tracts  (bkur),  and  there  are  many  large  sterile  wastes  of 
saline  efflorescence  (usdr).  The  country  is  an  almost  dead 
level  throughout,  the  average  slope,  which  is  from  north 
west  to  south-east,  being  less  than  a  foot  per  mile.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Gumti  and  the  Sai,  with  their 

1  Lucknow  division  lies  between  26°  9'  and  27°  21'  5"  N.  lat.  and 
between  80°  5'  and  81°  54'  E.  long.,  comprises  the  three  districts  of 
Lucknow,  Unao,  and  Bara  Banki,  and  has  an  area  of  4480  square 
miles,  of  which  2520  are  returned  as  under  cultivation.  The  popula 
tion  in  1869  was  2,838,106,  viz.,  2,449,763  Hindus,  383,260  Mo 
hammedans,  4309  Europeans,  and  784  Eurasians. 


tributaries.  The  former  enters  the  district  from  the  north, 
and,  after  passing  Lucknow  city,  turns  to  the  east  and 
enters  Bara  Banki.  The  Sai  forms  the  south-west  bound 
ary  of  the  district,  running  almost  parallel  with  the  Gumti. 
The  census  of  1869  returned  the  population  of  the  district  at 
970,625.  Recent  changes  and  transfers  to  and  from  other  districts 
have,  however,  taken  place.  Allowing  for  these,  Lucknow  contains 
(according  to  the  census  of  1869)  a  population  of  789,465  persons 
(416,960  males  and  372,505  females),  spread  over  an  area  of  965 
-square  miles.  Hindus  number  614,276  ;  Mohammedans,  167,184; 
Christians,  4982  ;  the  remainder  being  made  up  of  unclassified 
prisoners  and  jail  officials.  Four  towns  contain  a  population  ex 
ceeding  5000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Lucknow  city,  Amethi  (7182), 
Kakori  (8220),  Malihabad  (8026).  The  estimated  area  under  culti 
vation  is  returned  at  547  square  miles.  Three  harvests  are  reaped 
in  the  year,  viz. ,  the  rabi  in  spring,  comprising  wheat,  barley,  gram, 
peas,  gujai  (a  mixture  of  wheat  and  barley),  and  birra  (a  mixture 
of  barley  and  gram)  ;  the  kharif  in  the  rainy  season,  comprising 
rice,  millets,  sdnwdn,  mandwd,  kdkun,  and  Indian  corn  ;  and  the 
henuiat  in  the  autumn,  consisting  ofjoar,  bdjra,  indsh,  m&ng,  moth, 
masiir,  and  lobia.  In  addition,  there  are  valuable  crops  of  tobacco, 
opium,  cotton,  spices,  and  vegetables.  Irrigation  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  rivers,  tanks,  and  wells.  The  cultivators  are  almost  all 
deeply  in  debt,  and  under  advances  of  seed  grain  from  their  land 
lords.  Wages  have  remained  stationary  in  the  country,  but  have 
decreased  in  the  city  owing  to  its  diminished  wealth  and  population 
since  the  departure  of  the  Oudh  court.  The  price  of  food,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  materially  risen  of  late  years.  When  not  paid  in 
grain,  an  ordinary  agricultural  labourer  receives  about  l|d.  a  day. 
Artisans,  such  as  smiths  and  carpenters,  receive  4Jd.  a  day  for  work 
in  their  own  villages,  or  6d.  a  day  if  called  away  from  their  homes. 
Famines  have  occurred  inLueknow  in  1769,  1784-86,  and  1837,  and 
severe  scarcities  in  1861,  1865-66,  1869,  and  1873— all  caused  by 
drought.  The  district  is  well  provided  with  communications  by 
road,  river,  and  railway.  Three  imperial  lines  of  road  branch  out 
south,  east,  and  north  to  Cawnpur,  Faizabad,  and  Sitapur,  metalled 
and  bridged  throughout,  and  comprising,  exclusive  of  the  roads  in 
Lucknow  city  and  cantonments,  a  length  of  about  500  miles.  There 
are  also  seven  principal  local  lines  of  road.  River  communication 
is  not  much  used.  The  line  of  railway  is  comprised  in  the  Oudh 
and  Rohilkhand  railway  system.  The  entire  length  of  railway 
communication  is  52  miles.  Manufactures  are  mainly  confined  to 
Lucknow  city.  In  the  country  towns  are  a  few  weavers,  dyers, 
bangle-makers,  brass- workers,  and  potters.  Cotton  weaving  has 
greatly  declined  since  the  introduction  of  European  piece-goods. 
The  principal  imports  are  food-stuffs,  piece-goods,  arms,  hardware, 
glass,  crockery,  and  salt;  while  muslins,  embroidery,  cotton  prints, 
brass  vessels,  lace,  tobacco,  &c.,  are  exported.  The  district  is  ad 
ministered  by  a  deputy  commissioner,  aided  by  a  magistrate  in 
charge  of  the  city,  and  a  second  in  the  cantonments,  one  or  two 
assistant  commissioners,  three  extra-assistant  commissioners,  three 
talisilddrs,  and  four  honorary  magistrates.  Besides,  there  are  a 
civil  judge  and  a  small-cause  court  judge,  who  have  no  criminal  or 
revenue  powers.  The  total  imperial  and  local  revenue  of  Lucknow 
district  in  1871-72  amounted  to  £162,926,  and  the  expenditure  to 
£70,534  ;  the  Government  land  revenue  was  £70,580.  Excluding 
Lucknow  city,  the  schools  consist  of  one  Anglo-vernacular  middle 
class,  five  vernacular  middle  class,  and  seventy-one  primary  schools. 
The  prevailing  endemic  diseases  are  fevers,  skin  diseases,  and  bowel 
complaints.  Cholera  is  seldom  absent.  Small-pox  is  also  an  annual 
visitant.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  37 -6  inches,  and  the  mean 
annual  temperature  78u-8  Fahr. 

LUCKNOW,  capital  of  the  above  district,  and  of  the  pro 
vince  of  Oudh,  in  26°  52'  N.  lat.,  80°  58'  E.  long.,  is 
distant  from  Cawnpur  42  miles,  from  Benares  199  miles, 
and  from  Calcutta  G10  miles,  and  has  an  area  of  13  square 
miles.  It  ranks  fourth  in  size  among  Indian  cities,  being 
only  surpassed  by  the  presidency  capitals  of  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay.  It  stands  on  both  banks  of  the 
Gumti,  mostly  on  the  western  side,  the  river  being  spanned 
by  four  bridges,  two  of  them  built  by  native  rulers  and 
two  since  the  British  annexation  in  1856.  Viewed  from 
a  distance,  the  city  prosents  a  picture  of  unusual  magni 
ficence  and  architectural  splendour,  which  fades  on  nearer 
view  into  something  more  like  the  ordinary  aspect  of  a 
crowded  Oriental  town.  From  the  new  bridge  across  the 
Gumti,  the  city  seems  to  be  embedded  in  trees.  High 
up  the  river  the  ancient  stone  bridge  of  Asaf-ud-daula 
crosses  the  stream.  To  its  left  rise  the  walls  of  the 
Machf  Bhawan  fort,  enclosing  the  Lachman  tild  (Lach- 
man's  hill),  the  earliest  inhabited  spot  in  the  city,  from 


49 

which  it  derives  its  modern  name.  Close  by,  the  immense 
Imdmbara,  or  mausoleum  of  Asaf  ud-daula,  towers  above 
the  surrounding  buildings.  Farther  in  the  distance,  the 
lofty  minarets  of  the  Jama  Masjid  or  "cathedral  mosque" 
overlook  the  city ;  while  nearer  again,  on  the  same  side  of 
the  river,  the  ruined  walls  of  the  residency,  with  its 
memorial  cross,  recall  the  heroic  defence  made  by  the 
British  garrison  in  1857.  In  front,  close  to  the  water's 
edge,  the  Chattar  Manzil  palace,  a  huge  and  irregular  pile 
of  buildings,  crowned  by  gilt  umbrellas,  glitters  gaudily  in 
the  sunlight ;  while  to  the  left,  at  some  little  distance,  two 
mausoleums  flank  the  entrance  to  the  Kaisar  Bagh,  the 
last  of  the  overgrown  palaces  built  by  the  exiled  dynasty  of 
Oudh.  Still  more  picturesque  panoramas  may  be  obtained 
from  any  of  the  numerous  towers  and  cupolas  which 
abound  in  every  quarter.  But  a  nearer  examination  shows 
that  Lucknow  does  not  correspond  in  its  interior  arrange 
ments  to  its  brilliant  appearance  from  a  little  distance. 
Nevertheless,  many  of  its  streets  are  broader  and  finer 
than  those  of  most  Indian  towns ;  and  the  clearance 
effected  for  military  purposes  after  the  mutiny  has  been 
instrumental  in  greatly  improving  both  the  aspect  and  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  city.  A  glacis  half  a  mile  broad 
surrounds  the  fort;  and  three  military  roads,  radiating 
from  this  point  as  a  centre,  cut  right  through  the  heart  of 
the  native  quarter,  often  at  an  elevation  of  some  30  feet 
above  the  neighbouring  streets.  Three  other  main  roads 
also  branch  out  from  the  same  point,  one  leading  across 
the  bridge,  and  the  others  along  the  banks  of  the  Gumti. 
The  residency  crowns  a  picturesque  eminence,  the  chief 
ornament  of  the  city,  containing,  besides  many  ruined 
walls,  an  old  mosque  and  a  magnificent  banyan  tree.  An 
artificial  mound  rises  near  at  hand,  its  sides  gay  with 
parterres  of  flowers,  while  in  the  rear,  half  hidden  by  the 
feathery  foliage  of  gigantic  bamboos,  the  graveyard  covers 
the  remains  of  some  2000  Europeans,  who  perished  in 
1857.  The  cantonments  lie  3  miles  to  the  south-east  of 
the  city. 

The  population  of  Lucknow,  including  the  cantonments,  was 
returned  by  the  census  of  1869  at  284,779.  The  native  civil  popu 
lation  consisted  of  273,126,  viz.,  161,739  Hindus  and  111,387 
Mohammedans.  There  were  also  3648  native  soldiers,  4222 
Europeans,  760  Eurasians,  and  3023  prisoners  and  jail  officials.  The 
traffic  of  Oudh  flows  southwards  through  Lncknow  to  Cawnpur. 
Large  quantities  of  grain  and  timber  come  in  from  the  trans-Gogra 
districts  to  the  north,  while  raw  cotton,  iron,  and  imported  goods 
from  the  south  and  east  are  sent  in  exchange.  In  1869-70  goods 
to  the  value  of  nearly  three  quarters  of  a  million  sterling  paid  taxes 
at  the  octroi  office.  The  chief  municipal  taxable  articles  are  food 
stuffs,  ghi,  gtir  or  molasses,  sugar,  spices,  oilseeds,  and  tobacco ; 
besides  a  large  quantity  of  European  manufactured  articles  brought 
into  the  town.  Of  the  total  municipal  revenue  in  1870-71  (£20,0i8), 
£16,230  was  derived  from  octroi.  Lucknow  muslins  and  other 
textile  fabrics  have  a  high  reputation.  Gold  and  silver  brocade, 
however,  forms  the  leading  manufacture.  It  is  used  for  the 
numerous  purposes  of  Indian  pomp,  and  has  a  considerable  market 
even  in  Europe.  The  gorgeous  needlework  embroidery  upon  velvet 
and  cotton,  with  gold  thread,  thread  and  coloured  silks,  furnishes 
employment  to  many  hands.  Lucknow  jewellery,  once  very  famous, 
has  declined  since  the  departure  of  the  native  court.  Glass  work 
and  moulding  in  clay  still  maintain  their  original  excellence.  A 
Kashmiri  colony  has  introduced  a  small  manufacture  of  shawls. 
The  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway,  with  its  branches,  has  a  central 
station  in  Lucknow,  and  gives  direct  communication  with  Benares, 
Bareilly,  and  Cawnpur,  as  well  as  connecting  with  the  great  trunk 
lines  to  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  the  Punjab.  Before  the  amalga 
mation  of  Oudh  with  the  North-Western  Provinces  in  1877,  Luck- 
now  formed  the  residence  of  the  chief  commissioner  and  his  staff, 
and  it  still  ranks  as  the  headquarters  of  officials  whose  authority 
extends  over  the  whole  province.  The  principal  medical  institu 
tions  are  the  King's  hospital,  Balrampur  hospital,  Government  dis 
pensary  and  lunatic  asylum.  The  leading  educational  establish 
ments  are  the  Canning  college,  Martiniere  college,  Ward's  institu 
tion,  Loretto  convent,  and  a  number  of  schools  under  the  charge 
of  the  Church  of  England  and  American  missions. 

History. — The  most  interesting  event  in  the  modern  history  of 
Lucknow  is  the  siege  during  the  mutiny  of  1857-58.  Symptoms 

XV.  -  7 


50 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


of  disaffection  occurred  as  early  as  April  1857,  and  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  immediately  took  steps  to  meet  the  danger  by  fortifying 
the  residency  and  accumulating  stores.  On  the  night  of  the  30th 
May  the  expected  insurrection  broke  out ;  the  men  of  the  7lst 
regiment  of  native  infantry,  with  a  few  from  the  other  regiments, 
began  to  burn  the  bungalows  of  their  officers,  and  to  murder  the 
inmates,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  European  force  and  fled 
towards  Sitapur.  Though  the  city  thus  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  British,  the  symptoms  of  disaffection  amongst  the  remaining 
native  troops  were  unmistakable,  and  on  June  11  the  military 
police  and  native  cavalry  broke  into  open  revolt,  followed  on  the 
succeeding  morning  by  the  native  infantry.  On  the  20th  news  of 
the  fall  of  Cawnpur  arrived  ;  and  on  the  29th  occurred  the  failure 
of  Lawrence's  attack  upon  the  advancing  enemy,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  British  troops  fell  back  on  Lucknow,  abandoned  the 
Machi  Bhawan,  and  concentrated  all  their  strength  upon  the  resi 
dency.  The  siege  of  the  enclosure  began  upon  July  1.  Three  un 
successful  assaults  were  made  by  the  mutineers  on  July  20,  August 
10,  and  August  18  ;  but  meanwhile  the  British  within  were  dwind 
ling  away.  On  September  5  news  of  the  relieving  force  under 
Outram  and  Havelock  reached  the  garrison,  and  on  the  22d  the 
relief  arrived  at  the  Alambagh,  a  walled  garden  on  the  Cawnpur 
road  held  by  the  enemy  in  force.  Havelock  stormed  the  Alambagh, 
and  on  the  25th  fought  his  way  with  continuous  opposition  through 
the  narrow  lanes  of  the  city.  On  the  26th  he  arrived  at  the  gate  of 
the  residency'enclosure,  and  was  welcomed  by  the  gallant  defenders 
within.  The  sufferings  of  the  besieged  had  been  very  great  ;  but 
even  after  the  first  relief  it  became  clear  that  Lucknow  could  only 
be  temporarily  defended  till  the  arrival  of  further  reinforcements 
should  allow  the  garrison  to  cut  its  way  out.  Night  and  day  the 
enemy  kept  up  a  continual  firing  against  the  British  position,  while 
Outram,  who  had  reassumed  the  command  which  he  yielded  to  Have 
lock  during  the  relief,  retaliated  by  frequent  sorties.  Throughout 
October  the  garrison  continued  its  gallant  defence,  and  a  small 
party,  shut  up  in  the  Alambagh,  and  cut  off  unexpectedly  from  the 
main  body,  also  contrived  to  hold  good  its  dangerous  post.  Mean 
while  Sir  Colin  Campbell's  force  had  advanced  from  Cawnpur,  and 
arrived  at  the  Alambagh  on  the  10th  of  November.  The  Alambagh, 
the  Dilkusha  palace,  south-east  of  the  town,  the  Martiniere,  and  the 
Sikandra  Bagh,  the  chief  rebel  stronghold,  were  successively  carried 
in  the  course  of  the  six  following  days,  and  the  second  relief  was  suc 
cessfully  accomplished.  Even  now,  however,  it  remained  impos 
sible  to  hold  Lucknow,  and  Sir  Colin  Campbell  determined,  before 
undertaking  any  further  offensive  operations,  to  return  to  Cawnpur 
with  his  army,  escorting  the  civilians,  ladies,  and  children  rescued 
from  their  long  imprisonment  in  the  residency,  with  the  view  of 
forwarding  them  to  Calcutta.  On  the  morning  of  the  20th  Nov 
ember  the  troops  received  orders  to  march  for  the  Alambagh  ;  and 
the  residency,  the  scene  of  so  long  and  stirring  a  defence,  was  aban 
doned  for  a  while  to  the  rebel  army.  Outram  with  3500  men  held  the 
Alambaghuntil  the  commander-in-chief  could  return  to  recaptuie  the 
capital.  The  rebels  in  great  strength  again  surrounded  the  greater 
part  of  the  city,  for  a  circuit  of  20  miles,  with  an  external  line  of 
defence.  On  the  2d  of  March  1858  Sir  Colin  Campbell  found 
himself  free  enough  in  the  rear  to  march  once  more  upon  Lucknow. 
He  first  occupied  the  Dilkusha,  and  posted  guns  to  commanJ  the 
Martiniere.  On  the  5th  Brigadier  Franks  arrived  with  600C  men; 
Outram's  force  then  crossed  the  Gumti,  and  advanced  from  the 
direction  of  Faizabad,  while  the  main  body  attacked  from  the  south 
east.  After  a  week's  hard  fighting,  March  9-15,  the  rebels*  were 
completely  defeated,  and  their  posts  captured  one  by  one. 

LUCRETIUS  (T.  LUCRETIUS  CABUS),  more  than  any 
of  the  great  Roman  writers,  has  acquired  a  new  interest  in 
the  present  day.  This  result  is  due,  not  so  much  to  a  truer 
perception  of  the  force  and -purity  of  his  style,  of  the 
majesty  and  pathos  of  his  poetry,  or  of  the  great  sincerity 
of  his  nature,  as  to  the  recognition  of  the  relation  of  his 
subject  to  many  of  the  questions  on  which  speculative 
curiosity  is  now  engaged.  It  would  be  misleading  to 
speak  of  him,  or  of  the  Greek  philosophers  whose  tenets 
he  expounds,  as  anticipating  the  more  advanced  scientific 
hypotheses  of  modern  times.  But  it  is  in  his  poem  that 
we  find  the  most  complete  account  of  the  chief  effort  of 
the  ancient  mind  to  explain  the  beginning  of  things,  and 
to  understand  the  course  of  nature  and  man's  relation  to 
it.  Physical  philosophy  in  the  present  day  is  occupied 
with  the  same  problems  as  those  which  are  discussed  in 
the  first  two  books  of  the  De  Rerum  Natura.  The 
renewed  curiosity  as  to  the  origin  of  life,  the  primitive 
condition  of  man,  qnd  his  progressive  advance  to  civiliza 
tion  finds  an  attraction  in  the  treatment  of  the  same 
subjects  in  the  fifth  book,  The  old  war  between  science 


and  theology,  which  has  been  revived  in  the  present 
generation,  is  fought,  though  with  different  weapons,  yet 
in  the  same  ardent  and  uncompromising  spirit  throughout 
the  whole  poem,  as  it  is  in  the  writings  of  living  thinkers. 
In  comparing  the  controversies  of  the  present  day  with 
those  of  which  we  find  the  record  in  Lucretius,  we  are 
reminded  of  the  poet's  own  description  of  the  war  of" 
elements  in  the  world, — 

"  Denique,  tantopere  inter  se  cum  maxima  mundi 
Pugnent  membra,  pio  nequaquam  concita  bello, 
Nonne  vides  aliquam  longi  certaminis  ollis 
Posse  dari  finem  ?"  1 

But  this  concurrence  with  the  stream  of  speculation  in 
the  present  day  is  really  the  least  of  his  permanent  claims 
on  the  attention  of  the  world.  His  position  both  among 
ancient  and  modern  writers  is  unique.  No  one  else  com 
bines  in  the  same  degree  the  contemplative  enthusiasm  of 
a  philosopher,  the  earnest  purpose  of  a  reformer  and  moral 
teacher,  and  the  profound  pathos  and  sense  of  beauty  of  a 
great  poet.  He  stands  alone  among  his  countrymen  as 
much  in  the  ardour  with  which  he  observes  and  reasons 
on  the  processes  of  nature  as  in  the  elevation  of  feeling 
with  which  he  recognizes  the  majesty  of  her  laws,  and  the 
vivid  sympathy  with  which  he  interprets  the  manifold 
variety  of  her  life.  It  would  have  been  an  instructive 
study  to  have  traced  some  connexion  between  his  personal 
circumstances  and  the  intellectual  and  moral  position 
which  he  holds.  We  naturally  ask  what  influence  of 
teachers  in  Rome  or  Athens  first  attracted  him  to  this 
study  and  observation  of  natural  phenomena,  what  early 
impressions  or  experience  gave  so  sombre  a  colouring  to 
his  view  of  life,  how  far  the  delight,  so  strange  in  an 
ancient  Roman,  which  he  seems  to  find  in  a  kind  of  recluse 
communion  with  nature,  and  the  spirit  of  pathetic  or 
indignant  satire  in  which  he  treats  the  more  violent  phases 
of  passion  and  the  more  extravagant  modes  of  luxury,  was 
a  recoil  from  the  fascination  of  pleasures  in  which  his  con 
temporaries  and  equals  freely  indulged.  We  should  like 
also  to  know  how  far  the  serene  heights  which  he  professed 
to  have  attained  procured  him  exemption  from  or  allevia 
tion  of  the  actual  sorrows  of  life.  But  such  questions, 
suggested  by  the  strong  interest  which  the  impress  of 
personal  feeling  and  character  stamped  on  the  poem 
awakens  in  the  reader,  can  only  be  raised  ;  there  are  no 
ascertained  facts  by  which  they  can  be  settled.  There  is 
no  ancient  poet,  with  the  exception  of  Homer,  of  whose 
history  so  little  is  positively  known.  Unlike  Catullus, 
Horace,  Virgil,  Cicero,  Tacitus,  and  nearly  all  the  great 
Roman  writers,  he  is  absolutely  silent  on  the  subject  of 
his  own  position  and  fortunes.  Nor  is  this  silence  com 
pensated  by  any  personal  reference  to  him  in  the  works  of 
his  two  eminent  contemporaries  by  whom  the  social  life  of 
their  age  is  so  amply  illustrated,  Cicero  and  Catullus, 
although  it  is  certain  that  each  of  them  read  his  poem 
almost  immediately  after  it  was  given  to  the  world.  The 
great  poets  of  the  following  ages  were  influenced  by  his 
genius,  but  they  tell  us  nothing  as  to  his  career.  So  con 
sistently  does  he  seem  to  have  followed  the  maxim  of  his 
master,  "  Pass  through  life  unnoticed,"  and  to  have  realized, 
in  the  midst  of  the  excited  political,  intellectual,  and 
social  life  of  the  last  years  of  the  republic,  the  ideal  of 
'those  "  who  do  not  wish  to  be  known  even  while  living."  2 
Our  sole  information  concerning  his  life  is  found  in  the 
brief  summary  of  Jerome,  written  more  than  four  centuries 
after  the  poet's  death.  Scholars  are  now  agreed  that  in 
these  summaries,  added  to  his  translation  of  the  Eusebian 

1  "  In  fine,  as  the  mightiest  members  of  the  world  are  battling 
fiercely  together  in  an  unhallowed  feud,  seest  thou  not  that  some  end 
of  the  long  warfare  may  be  reached  by  them  ? " 

"  Quoted  from  Pliny  by  M.  Martha  iu  Le  Poeme  de  Lucrece. 


LUCRETIUS 


51 


Chronicle,  Jerome  followed,  often  carelessly  and  inaccurately, 
the  accounts  contained  in  the  lost  work  of  Suetonius  De 
Viris  Illustribus.  But  that  work  was  written  about  two 
centuries  after  the  death  of  Lucretius ;  and,  although  it  is 
likely  that  Suetonius  used  the  information  transmitted  by 
earlier  grammarians,  there  is  nothing  to  guide  us  to  the 
original  sources  from  which  the  tradition  concerning  the 
life  of  Lucretius  was  derived.  The  strange  character  of 
the  story  which  has  been  transmitted  to  us,  and  the  want 
of  any  support  to  it  from  external  evidence,  oblige  us  to 
receive  it  with  a  certain  reserve. 

According  to  this  account  the  poet  was  born  in  the  year 
94  B.C.  ;  he  became  mad  ("in  furorem  versus")  in  conse 
quence  of  the  administration  of  a  love-philtre ;  and  after 
composing  several  books  in  his  lucid  intervals,  which  were 
subsequently  corrected  by  Cicero,  he  died  by  his  own  hand 
in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  The  statement  of 
Donatus  in  his  life  of  Virgil,  a  work  also  based  on  the 
lost  work  of  Suetonius,  that  Lucretius  died  on  the  15th  of 
October  55  B.C.,  the  same  day  on  which  Virgil  assumed  the 
toga  virilis,  is  inconsistent  either  with  the  date  assigned 
for  the  poet's  birth  or  with  the  age  at  which  he  is  said  to 
have  died.  A  single  mention  of  the  poem  (which  from 
the  condition  in  which  it  has  reached  us  may  be  assumed 
to  have  been  published  posthumously)  in  a  letter  of 
Cicero's,  written  early  in  54  B.C.,  is  confirmatory  of  the 
date  given  by  Donatus  as  that  of  the  poet's  death.  Similar 
errors  in  chronology  are  common  in  the  summaries  of 
Jerome ;  and,  where  there  is  an  inconsistency  between  the 
date  assigned  for  the  birth  of  any  author  and  the  age  at 
which  he  is  said  to  have  died  (as,  for  instance,  in  the  case 
of  Catullus),  there  are  grounds  for  believing  that  the  error 
lies  in  the  first  date.  Taking  the  statements  of  Donatus 
and  of  Jerome  together,  we  may  consider  it  probable  that 
Lucretius  died  in  the  October  of  55  B.C.,  in  the  forty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  and  that  he  was  born  either  late  in  the 
year  99  B.C.  or  early  in  the  year  98  B.C.  He  would  thus 
be  about  seven  years  younger  than  Cicero,  a  year  or  two 
younger  than  Julius  Csesar,  about  the  same  age  as 
Memmius,  to  whom  the  poem  is  dedicated,  and  about 
fifteen  years  older  than  Catullus  and  Calvus,  the  younger 
poets  of  his  generation,  from  whom  he  is  widely  separated 
both  by  his  more  archaic  style  and  rhythm  and  by  the  greater 
seriousness  of  his  art  and  the  more  earnest  dignity  of  his 
character.  The  other  statements  of  Jerome  have  been 
questioned  or  disbelieved  on  the  ground  of  their  intrinsic 
improbability.  They  have  been  regarded  as  a  fiction 
invented  in  a  later  time  by  the  enemies  of  Epicureanism, 
with  the  view  of  discrediting  the  most  powerful  work 
ever  produced  by  any  disciple  of  that  sect.  It  is  more  in 
conformity  with  ancient  credulity  than  with  modern  science 
to  attribute  a  permanent  tendency  to  derangement  to  the 
accidental  administration  of  any  drug,  however  potent.  A 
work  characterized  by  such  strength,  consistency,  and  con 
tinuity  of  thought  is  not  likely  to  have  been  composed 
"per  intervallainsanise."  Donatus,  in  mentioning  the  poet's 
death,  gives  no  hint  of  the  act  of  suicide.  The  poets  of  the 
Augustan  age,  who  were  deeply  interested  both  in  his 
philosophy  and  his  poetry,  are  entirely  silent  about  the 
tragical  story  of  his  life.  Cicero,  by  his  professed  anta 
gonism  to  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus,  by  his  inadequate 
appreciation  of  Lucretius  himself,  and  by  the  indifference 
which  he  shows  to  other  contemporary  poets,  seems  to 
have  been  neither  fitted  for  the  task  of  correcting  the 
unfinished  work  of  a  writer  whose  genius  was  so  distinct 
from  his  own,  nor  likely  to  have  cordially  undertaken  such 
a  task. 

Yet  these  considerations  do  not  lead  to  the  absolute 
rejection  of  the  story  as  a  pure  invention  of  a  hostile 
and  uncritical  age.  The  evidence  afforded  by  the 


poem  rather  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  tradition 
contains  some  germ  of  fact.  We  need  not  attach  any 
importance  to  the  supposed  efficacy  of  the  love-philtre  in 
producing  mental  alienation,  nor  are  we  called  upon  to 
think  of  Lucretius  as  one  liable  to  recurring  fits  of  insanity, 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  But  it  is  remarkable, 
as  was  first  observed  by  Mr  Munro,  his  English  editor, 
that  in  more  than  one  passage  of  his  poem  he  writes  with 
extraordinary  vividness  of  the  impression  produced  both 
by  dreams  and  by  waking  visions.  It  is  true  that  the 
philosophy  of  Epicurus  put  great  stress  on  these,  as 
affording  the  explanation  of  the  origin  of  supernatural 
belicts.  But  the  insistence  with  which  Lucretius  returns 
to  the  subject,  and  the  horror  with  which  he  recalls  the 
effects  of  such  abnormal  phenomena,  suggest  the  inference 
that  he  himself  may  have  been  liable  to  such  hallucinations, 
which  are  said  to  be  consistent  with  perfect  sanity,  though 
they  may  be  the  precursors  either  of  madness  or  of  a  state 
of  despair  and  melancholy  which  often  ends  in  suicide.1 
Other  passages  in  his  poem,  as,  for  instance,  the  lines 

"  Nos  agere  hoc  autem,  et  naturam  quserere  rerum, 
Semper  et  inventam  patriis  exponere  chartis,"2 

where  he  describes  himself  as  ever  engaged,  even  in  his 
dreams,  on  his  task  of  inquiry  and  composition,  produce 
the  impression  of  an  unrelieved  strain  of  mind  and  feeling, 
which  may  have  ended*  in  some  extreme  reaction  of  spirit, 
or  in  some  failure  of  intellectual  power,  from  the  conscious 
ness  of  which  he  may,  in  accordance  with  examples  which 
he  himself  quotes,  have  taken  refuge  in  suicide.  But  the 
strongest  confirmation  of  the  existence  of  some  germ  of 
fact  in  the  tradition  is  found  in  the  unfinished  condition 
in  which  the  poem  has  reached  us.  The  subject  appears 
indeed  to  have  been  fully  treated  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  sketched  out  in  the  introduction  to  the  first  book. 
But  that  book  is  the  only  one  which  is  finished  in  style 
and  in  the  arrangement  of  its  matter.  In  all  the  others, 
and  especially  in  the  last  three,  the  continuity  of  the  argu 
ment  is  frequently  broken  by  passages  which  must  have 
been  inserted  after  the  first  draft  of  the  arguments  was 
written  out.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  his  account  of  the 
transition  from  savage  to  civilized  life,  he  assumes  at  v. 
1011  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  skins,  fire,  &c.,  and  the 
first  beginning  of  civil  society,  and  proceeds  at  1028  to 
explain  the  origin  of  language,  and  then  again  returns, 
from  1090  to  1160,  to  speculate  upon  the  first  use  of  fire 
and  the  earliest  stages  of  political  life.  These  breaks  in 
the  continuity  of  the  argument  show  what  might  also  be 
inferred  from  frequent  repetitions  of  lines  which  have 
appeared  earlier  in  the  poem,  and  from  the  rough  work 
manship  of  passages  in  the  later  books,  that  the  poem 
could  not  have  received  the  final  revision  of  the  author, 
and  must  have  been  given  to  the  world  by  some  editor 
after  his  death.  Nor  is  there  any  great  difficulty  in 
believing  that  that  editor  was  Cicero.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  press  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  emendavit "  as  applied 
to  the  task  fulfilled  by  him.  Cicero  certainly  was  incap 
able  of  "  improving  "  any  of  the  poetry  of  Lucretius,  and  the 
slight  mention  which  he  makes  of  the  poem  in  a  letter  to 
his  brother  ("  the  poem  of  Lucretius  is,  as  you  describe  it, 
a  work  not  of  much  genius  but  of  much  art  " 3)  seems  to 
imply  that  he  was  not  very  capable  of  appreciating  it. 
But  other  motives,  besides  appreciation  of  the  poet's 
genius  or  sympathy  with  his  doctrines,  may  have  induced 

1  Of.  Fortnightly  Review,  September  1878. 

2  "  While  I  seem  to  be  ever  busily  plying  this  task,  to  be  inquiring 
into  the  nature   of  things,  and  to  be  expounding  my  discoveries  by 
vvritings  in  my  native  tongue." 

3  The  reading  is  so  uncertain  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  the 
claim  of  genius  or  of  art  that  Cicero  refuses  to  concede.     Some  inter 
pretations  of  the  passage  imply  that  he  conceded  both. 


52 


him  to  undertake  a  task  which  has  not  been  very  success 
fully  performed.  It  may  be  remarked  further  that 
scepticism  as  to  statements  about  their  lives  is  less 
warranted  in  the  case  of  the  great  Roman  than  of  the 
great  Greek  writers,  from  the  fact  that  the  work  of 
criticism  went  on  at  Rome  contemporaneously  with  the 
progress  of  original  creation,  and  that  the  line  of  gram 
marians  and  commentators  by  whom  these  statements  were 
transmitted  continued  unbroken  almost  from  the  first 
beginning  of  Latin  literature. 

We  find  in  the  instance  of  nearly  all  the  other  Latin 
poets,  even  of  the  most  obscure  among  them,  that  their 
birthplace  has  been  recorded,  and  it  has  often  been 
remarked  that  Latin  poetry  was  an  Italian  and  provincial 
rather  than  a  purely  Roman  product.  From  the  absence 
of  any  claim  on  the  part  of  any  other  district  of  Italy 
to  the  honour  of  having  given  birth  to  Lucretius  it  is 
inferred  that  he  was  an  exception  to  the  rule,  and  was 
of  purely  Roman  origin.  No  writer  certainly  is  more 
purely  Roman  in  personal  character  and  in  strength  of 
understanding.  He  seems  to  speak  of  Rome  as  his 
native  state  in  such  expressions  as  "  patriai  tempore 
iniquo,"  "  patrii  sermonis  egestas,"  and  "  patriis  chartis." 
His  silence  on  ths  subject  of  Roman  greatness  and 
glory  as  contrasted  with  the  prominence  of  these  sub 
jects  in  the  poetry  of  men  of  provincial  birth  such  as 
Ennius,  Virgil,  and  Horace,  may  be  explained  by  the 
principle  that  the  familiarity  of  long-inherited  traditions 
had  made  the  subject  one  of  less  wonder  and  novelty  to 
him.  The  Lucretian  gens  to  which  he  belonged  was  one 
of  the  oldest  of  the  great  Roman  houses,  nor  do  we  hear 
of  the  name,  as  we  do  of  other  great  family  names,  as 
being  diffused  over  other  parts  of  Italy,  or  as  designating 
men  of  obscure  or  servile  origin.  It  seems  from  the 
evidence  of  the  name,  confirmed  by  the  tone  in  which  he 
writes,  as  probable  as  any  such  inference  can  be  that 
Lucretius  was  a  member  of  the  Roman  aristocracy,  belong 
ing  either  to  a  senatorian  or  to  one  of  the  great  equestrian 
families,  living  in  easy  circumstances,  and  familiar  with 
the  spectacle  of  luxury  and  artistic  enjoyment  which  the 
great  houses  of  Rome  and  the  great  country  houses  in  the 
most  beautiful  parts  of  Italy  presented.  If  the  Roman 
aristocracy  of  his  time  had  lost  much  of  the  virtue  and  of 
the  governing  qualities  of  their  ancestors,  they  showed  in 
the  last  years  before  the  establishment  of  monarchy  a  taste 
for  intellectual  culture  which  might  have  made  Rome  as 
great  in  literature  as  in  arms  and  law,  if  the  republic  could 
have  continued.  The  discussions  which  Cicero  puts  in  the 
mouth  of  Velleius,  Cotta,  &c.,  indicate  the  new  taste  for 
philosophy  developed  among  members  of  the  governing 
class  during  the  youth  of  Lucretius ;  and  we  hear  of 
eminent  Greek  teachers  of  the  Epicurean  sect  being 
settled  at  Rome  at  the  same  time,  and  living  on  terms  of 
intimacy  with  them.  The  inference  that  Lucretius  be 
longed  to  this  class,  and  shared  in  the  liberal  culture 
which  it  received,  is  confirmed  by  the  tone  in  which  he 
addresses  Memmius,  a  man  of  an  eminent  senatorian 
family,  and  of  considerable  oratorical  and  poetical  accom 
plishment,  to  whom  the  poem  is  dedicated.  His  tone  to 
Memmius  is  quite  unlike  that  in  which  Virgil  or  even 
Horace  addresses  Maecenas.  He  addresses  him  as  an 
equal ;  he  expresses  sympathy  with  the  prominent  part 
his  friend  played  in  public  life,  and  admiration  for  his 
varied  accomplishment,  but  on  his  own  subject  claims  to 
speak  to  him  in  the  tones  of  authority. 

Although  our  conception  of  the  poet's  life  and  circum 
stances  is  necessarily  vague  and  meagre,  yet  his  personal 
force  is  so  remarkable  and  so  vividly  impressed  on  his 
poem,  and  his  language  bears  so  unmistakably  the 
stamp  of  sincerity,  that  we  seem  able  to  form  a  consistent 


idea  of  his  tastes  and  habits,  his  sympathies  and  convic 
tions,  his  moral  and  emotional  nature.  If  we  know  nothing 
of  the  particular  experience  which  determined  his  passionate 
adherence  to  the  Epicurean  creed  and  his  attitude  of  spiritual 
and  social  isolation  from  the  ordinary  course  of  Roman  life 
and  belief,  we  can  at  least  say  that  the  choice  of  a  contem 
plative  life  was  not  the  result  of  indifference  to  the  fate  of 
the  world,  or  of  any  natural  coldness  or  even  calmness  of 
temperament.  In  some  of  his  most  powerful  poetry,  as  in 
the  opening  lines  of  the  second  and  of  the  third  books,  we 
can  mark  the  strong  recoil  of  a  humane  and  sensitive  spirit 
from  the  horrors  of  the  raign  of  terror  which  he  witnessed 
in  his  youth,  and  from  the  anarchy  and  confusion  which 
prevailed  at  Rome  during  the  later  years  of  his  life ;  while 
his  vivid  realization  of  the  pains  and  disappointments  of 
passion,  of  the  unsatisfying  nature  of  all  violent  emotion, 
and  of  the  restlessness  and  weariness  of  life  which  excessive 
luxury  entails,  suggest  at  least  the  inference  that  he  had 
not  been  through  his  whole  career  so  much  estranged  from 
the  social  life  of  his  day  as  he  seems  to  have  been  in  his 
later  years.  Passages  in  his  poem  attest  his  familiarity 
with  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  city  life,  with  the  attractions 
of  the  public  games,  and  with  the  pageantry  of  great 
military  spectacles.  But  much  the  greater  mass  of  the 
illustrations  of  his  philosophy  scattered  through  the  poem 
indicate  that,  while  engaged  in  its  composition,  and  in  the 
studies  preparatory  to  it,  he  must  have  lived  in  the  country 
or  by  the  sea-shore,  and  that  he  must  have  passed  much  of 
his  time  in  the  open  air,  exercising  at  once  the  keen  observa 
tion  of  a  naturalist  and  the  contemplative  vision  of  a  poet. 
He  shows  a  fellow  feeling  with  the  habits  and  moods  of 
the  animals  associated  with  human  toil  and  adventure. 
He  seems  to  have  found  a  pleasure,  more  congenial  to  the 
modern  than  to  the  ancient  temperament,  in  ascending 
mountains  or  wandering  among  their  solitudes  (vi.  469, 
iv.  575).  References  to  companionship  in  these  wander 
ings,  and  the  well-known  description  of  the  charrn  of  a 
rustic  meal  (ii.  29)  enjoyed  with  comrades  amid  beautiful 
scenery  and  in  fine  weather,  speak  of  kindly  sociality 
rather  than  of  any  austere  separation  from  his  fellows. 

Other  expressions  in  his  poem  (e.g.,  iii.  10,  &c.)  imply 
that  he  was  an  ardent  student  of  books,  as  well  as  a 
sympathetic  observer  of  outward  phenomena.  Foremost 
among  these  were  the  writings  of  his  master  Epicurus ; 
but  he  had  also  an  intimate  knowledge  and  appreciation 
of  the  philosophical  poem  of  Empedocles,  and  at  least  an 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Democritus,  Anaxagoras, 
Heraclitus,  Plato,  and  the  Stoical  writers.  Of  other  Greek 
prose  writers  he  knew  Thucydides  and  Hippocrates  ;  while 
of  the  poets  he  expresses  in  more  than  one  passage  the 
highest  admiration  of  Homer,  whom  he  lias  imitated  in 
several  places.  Next  to  Homer  Euripides  is  most  fre 
quently  reproduced  by  him.  There  is  an  evident  struggle 
between  the  impulses  of  his  imaginative  temperament, 
prompting  him  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  great 
masters  in  art  and  poetry,  and  the  influence  of  the  teach 
ing  of  Epicurus,  in  accordance  with  which  the  old  poets 
and  painters  of  Greece  are  condemned  as  the  authors  and 
propagators  of  false  ideas  both  of  nature  and  the  gods. 
But  his  poetical  sympathy  was  not  limited  to  the  poets  of 
Greece.  For  his  own  countryman  Ennius  he  expresses  an 
affectionate  admiration  ;  and  he  imitates  his  language,  his 
rhythm,  and  his  manner  in  many  places.  The  fragments 
of  the  old  tragedian  Pacuvius  and  of  the  satirist  Lucilius 
show  that  Lucretius  had  made  use  of  their  expressions  and 
materials.  In  his  studies  he  was  attracted  by  the  older 
writers,  both  Greek  and  Roman,  in  whose  masculine 
temperament  and  understanding  he  recognized  an  affinity 
with  his  own.  He  had  a  most  enthusiastic  admiration 
foi  genius,  especially  when  exercised  in  the  investiga- 


LUCRETIUS 


tion  and  discovery  of  truth.  His  devotion  to  Epicurus 
seems  at  first  sight  more  difficult  to  explain  than  his 
enthusiasm  for  Empedocles  or  Ennius.  Probably  he 
found  in  his  calmness  of  temperament,  in  his  natural  or 
acquired  indifference  to  all  violent  emotion,  even  in  his 
want  of  imagination,  a  sense  of  rest  and  of  exemption 
from  the  disturbing  influences  of  life  which  the  passionate 
heart  of  the  poet  denied  himself ;  while  in  his  physical 
philosophy  he  found  both  an  answer  to  the  questions  which 
perplexed  him  and  an  inexhaustible  stimulus  to  his  intel 
lectual  curiosity.  The  combative  energy,  the  sense  of 
superiority,  the  spirit  of  satire,  characteristic  of  him  as  a 
Roman,  unite  with  his  loyalty  to  Epicurus  to  render  him 
not  only  polemical  but  intolerant  and  contemptuous  in  his 
tone  toward  the  great  antagonists  of  his  system,  the  Stoics, 
whom,  while  constantly  referring  to  them,  lie  does  not 
condescend  even  to  name.  With  his  admiration  of  the 
genius  of  others  he  combines  a  strong  sense  of  his  own 
power.  He  is  quite  conscious  of  the  great  importance  and 
of  the  difficulty  of  his  task  ;  but  he  feels  his  own  ability 
to  cope  with  it.  He  has  the  keenest  capacity  for  intel 
lectual  pleasure,  and  speaks  of  the  constant  charm  which 
he  found  both  in  the  collection  of  his  materials  and  in  the 
exercise  of  his  art.  If  his  mind  was  overstrained  by  the 
incessant  devotion  to  his  task  of  which  he  speaks,  he  allows 
no  expression  of  fatigue  or  discouragement  to  escape  from 
him.  The  ardour  of  study,  the  delight  in  contemplative 
thought,  the  "sweet  love  of  the  muses,"  the  "great  hope 
of  fame,"  all  combined  to  bear  him  buoyantly  through  all 
the  difficulties  and  fatigues  of  his  long  and  lonely 
adventure. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  infer  the  moral  thin  the  intellectual 
characteristics  of  a  great  writer  from  the  personal  impress 
left  by  him  on  his  work.  Yet  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  there  is  no  work  in  any  literature  that  produces  a 
profounder  impression  of  sincerity.  No  writer  shows  a 
juster  scorn  of  all  mere  rhetoric  and  exaggeration.  This 
is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  spell  which  the  poem 
exercises  over  us.  By  no  Stoic  even  could  the  doctrine  of 
independence  of  the  world,  and  of  the  superiority  of 
simplicity  over  show  and  luxury,  be  more  forcibly  and 
consistently  inculcated.  No  one  shows  truer  courage,  not 
marred  by  irreverence,  in  confronting  the  great  problems 
of  human  destiny,  or  greater  strength  in  triumphing  over 
human  weakness.  No  one  shows  a  truer  humanity  and  a 
more  tender  sympathy  with  natural  sorrow.  In  reverence 
for  the  sanctities  of  human  affection,  Virgil  alone  is  his 
equal,  nor  is  it  an  unlikely  surmise  that  it  was  to  the  power 
of  this  sentiment,  and  the  influence  which  it  had  on  his 
relation  with  others,  that  he  owed  the  cognomen  of 
"Cirus"1  or  the  "beloved." 

The  peculiarity  of  the  poem  of  Lucretius,  that  which 
makes  it  unique  in  literature,  is  that  it  is  a  reasoned  system 
of  philosophy,  written  in  verse.  The  subject  was  chosen 
and  the  method  of  exposition  adopted,  not  primarily  with 
the  idea  of  moving  and  satisfying  the  imagination,  but 
of  communicating  truth.  The  prosaic  title  De  lierum 
Natura,  a  translation  of  the  Greek  Trept  </>u'o-ea>s,  implies 
the  subordination  of  the  artistic  to  a  speculative  motive. 
As  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  the  great  works  of  Roman 
literary  genius,  the  form  of  the  poem  was  borrowed  from 
the  Greeks.  The  rise  of  speculative  philosophy  in  Greece 
was  coincident  with  the  beginning  of  prose  composition, 
and  many  of  the  earliest  philosophers  gave  their  thoughts 
to  the  world  in  the  prose  of  the  Ionic  dialect ;  others 
however,  and  especially  the  writers  of  the  Greek  colonies 
in  Italy  and  Sicily,  expounded  their  systems  in  continuous 
poems  composed  in  the  epic  hexameter.  These  writers 

1  Cf.  Martha,  LK  Poeme  de  Litcrece,  p.  28 


flourished  in  the  beginning  and  first  half  of  the  5th  ceutury 
B.C., — the  great  awakening  time  of  the  intellectual, 
imaginative,  and  artistic  faculties  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  names  most  famous  in  connexion  with  this  kind  of 
poetry  are  those  of  Xenophanes  and  Parmenides,  the 
Eleatics,  and  that  of  Empedocles  of  Agrigentum.  The 
last  was  less  important  as  a  philosopher,  but  greater  than 
the  others  both  as  a  poet  and  a  physicist.  On  both  of 
these  grounds  he  had  a  greater  attraction  to  Lucretius. 
The  fragments  of  the  poem  of  Empedocles  show  that  the 
Roman  poet  regarded  that  work  as  his  model.  In  accord 
ance  with  this  model  he  has  given  to  his  own  poem  the 
form  of  a  personal  address,  lie  has  developed  his  argument 
systematically,  and  has  applied  the  sustained  impetus  of 
epic  poetry  to  the  treatment  of  some  of  the  driest  and 
abstrusest  topics.  Many  ideas  and  expressions  of  the 
Sicilian  have  been  reproduced  by  the  Roman  poet ;  aud 
the  same  tone  of  impassioned  solemnity  and  melancholy 
seems  to  have  pervaded  both  works.  But  Lucretius,  if 
less  original  as  a  thinker,  was  probably  a  much  greater 
poet  than  Empedocles.  With  the  speculative  enthusiasm 
of  the  Greeks  he  combines,  in  a  remarkable  measure,  the 
Italian  susceptibility  to  the  charm  of  nature,  and  the  greater 
humanity  of  feeling  which  belongs  to  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  human  history.  But  what  chiefly  distinguishes 
him  from  his  Greek  prototypes  is  that  his  purpose  is  rather 
ethical  than  purely  speculative.  He  shares  with  them  the 
delight  in  inquiry  and  discovery  ;  but  the  zeal  of  a  teacher 
and  reformer  is  more  strong  in  him  than  even  the  intel 
lectual  passion  of  a  thinker.  His  speculative  ideas,  his 
moral  teaching,  and  his  poetical  power  are  indeed  inter 
dependent  on  one  another,  and  this  interdependence  is 
what  mainly  constitutes  their  power  and  interest.  But  of 
the  three  claims  which  he  makes  to  immortality, — 

"  Primum  quod  magnis  docco  de  rebus,  et  artis 
Religionum  animum  nodis  exsolvere  pergo, 
Delude  quod  obscura  de  re  tarn  lucida  paugo 
Carmina  musieo  contiugens  cuncta  leporc, — "2 

that  which  he  himself  regarded  as  supreme  was  the  second, 
—  the  claim  of  a  liberator  of  the  human  spirit  from  the 
cramping  bonds  of  superstition. 

This  purpose  is  announced  by  him  over  and  over  again, 
as  for  instance  at  the  beginning  of  the  argument  in  the  first, 
second,  third,  and  sixth  bocks.  The  main  idea  of  the  poem 
is  the  irreconcilable  opposition  between  the  truth  of  the  laws 
of  nature  and  the  falsehood  of  the  old  superstitions.  But 
it  is  not  merely  by  the  intellectual  opposition  between  truth 
and  falsehood  that  he  is  moved.  The  happiness  and  the 
dignity  of  life  are  regarded  by  him  as  absolutely  dependent 
on  the  acceptance  of  the  true  and  the  rejection  of  the  false 
doctrine.  The  ground  of  his  extravagant  eulogies  of 
Epicurus  is  that  he  recognized  in  him  the  first  great 
champion  in  the  war  of  liberation,  and  in  his  system  of 
philosophy  he  believed  that  he  had  found  the  weapons  by 
which  this  war  could  be  most  effectually  waged.  Follow 
ing  in  his  footsteps,  he  sets  before  himself  the  aim  of 
finally  crushing  that  fear  of  the  gods  and  that  fear  of  death 
resulting  from  it  which  he  regards  as  the  source  of  all  the 
human  ills.  Incidentally  he  desires  also  to  purify  the 
heart  from  other  violent  passions  which  corrupt  it  and  mar 
its  peace.  But  the  source  even  of  these — the  passions  of 
ambition  and  avarice — he  finds  in  the  fear  of  death ;  and 
that  fear  he  resolves  into  the  fear  of  eternal  punishment 
after  death. 

The  selection  of  his  subject  and  the  order  in  which  it  is 
treated  are  determined  by  this  motive.  Although  the  title 

2  "  First,  Ly  reason  of  the  greatness  of  my  argument,  and  my  pur 
pose  to  set  free  the  mind  from  the  close  drawn  bonds  of  superstitions  > 
next,  because  on  so  dark  a  theme  I  write  such  lucid  verse,  casting  over 
all  the  charm  of  poesy. " 


LUCI1ETIUS 


of  the  poem  implies  that  it  is  a  treatise  on  the  "  whole 
nature  of  things,"  the  aim  of  Lucretius  is  not  to  treat 
exhaustively  the  whole  of  natural  science,  recognized  in 
the  Epicurean  system,  but  only  those  branches  of  it  which 
are  necessary  to  clear  the  mind  from  the  fear  of  the  gods 
and  the  terrors  of  a  future  state.  In  the  two  earliest  books, 
accordingly,  he  lays  down  and  largely  illustrates  the  first 
principles  of  being  with  the  view  of  showing  that  the  world 
is  not  governed  by  capricious  agency,  but  has  come  into 
existence,  continues  in  existence,  and  will  ultimately  pass 
away  in  accordance  with  the  primary  conditions  of  the 
elemental  atoms  which,  along  with  empty  space,  are  the 
only  eternal  and  immutable  substances.  These  atoms  are 
themselves  infinite  in  number  but  limited  in  their  varieties, 
and  by  their  ceaseless  movement  and  combinations  during 
infinite  time  and  through  infinite  space  the  whole  process 
of  creation  is  maintained.  In  the  third  book  he  applies 
the  principles  of  the  atomic  philosophy  to  explain  the 
nature  of  the  mind  and  vital  principle,  with  the  view  of 
showing  that  the  soul  perishes  with  the  body.  In  the 
fourth  book  he  discusses  the  Epicurean  doctrine  of  the 
"simulacra,"  or  images,  which  are  cast  from  all  bodies,  and 
which  act  either  on  the  senses  or  immediately  on  the  mind, 
in  dreams  or  waking  visions,  as  affording  the  explanation 
of  the  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of  the  spirits  of 
the  departed.  The  fifth  book,  which  has  the  most  general 
interest,  professes  to  explain  the  process  by  which  the 
earth,  the  sea,  the  sky,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  were 
formed,  the  origin  of  life,  and  the  gradual  advance  of 
man  from  the  most  savage  to  the  most  civilized  condition. 
All  these  topics  are  treated  with  the  view  of  showing  that 
the  world  is  not  itself  divine  nor  directed  by  divine  agency. 
The  sixth  book  is  devoted  to  the  explanation,  in  accordance 
with  natural  causes,  of  some  of  the  more  abnormal 
phenomena,  such  as  thunderstorms,  volcanoes,  earthquakes, 
&c.,  which  are  special  causes  of  supernatural  terrors. 

It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  limits  of  this  article, 
to  give  any  detailed  account  or  criticism  of  an  argument 
which  is  carried  on,  with  the  interruption  only  of  occasional 
episodes,  in  which  the  moral  teaching  of  the  poet  is 
enforced,  through  a  poem  extending  to  between  six  and 
seven  thousand  lines.  Eeaders  who  are  especially  inter 
ested  in  the  science  of  Lucretius  will  find  the  subject 
clearly  treated  in  chapter  v.  of  Lange's  History  of  Material 
ism.  The  consecutive  study  of  the  argument  produces 
on  most  readers  a  mixed  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  and 
admiration.  They  are  repelled  by  the  dryness  of  much  of 
the  matter,  the  unsuitableness  of  many  of  the  topics  dis 
cussed  for  poetic  treatment,  the  arbitrary  assumption  of 
premisses,  the  entire  failure  to  establish  the  connexion 
between  the  concrete  phenomena  which  the  author  pro 
fesses  to  explain  and  these  assumptions,  and  the  errone- 
ousness  of  many  of  the  doctrines  which  are  stated  with 
dogmatic  confidence.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  con 
stantly  impressed  by  his  poVer  of  reasoning  both  de 
ductively  and  inductively,  by  the  subtlety  and  fertility 
of  invention  with  which  he  applies  analogies,  by  the  clear 
ness  and  keenness  of  his  observation,  by  the  fulness  of 
matter  with  which  his  mind  is  stored,  and  by  the  consecu 
tive  force,  the  precision,  and  distinctness  of  his  style,  when 
employed  in  the  processes  of  scientific  exposition.  The 
first  two  books  enable  us  better  than  anything  else  in 
ancient  literature  to  appreciate  the  boldness  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  reasonableness  of  the  ancient  mind  in  forming 
hypotheses  on  great  matters  that  still  baffle  the  investiga 
tions  of  science.  The  third  and  fourth  books  give  evidence 
of  acuteness  in  psychological  analysis  ;  the  fourth  and  sixth 
of  the  most  active  and  varied  observation  of  natural  pheno 
mena  :  the  fifth  of  original  insight  and  strong  common 
sense  in  conceiving  the  origin  of  society  and  the  progressive 


advance  of  man  to  civilization.  But  the  chief  value  of 
Lucretius  as  a  thinker  lies  in  his  firm  grasp  of  speculative 
ideas,  and  in  his  application  of  them  to  the  interpretation 
of  human  life  and  nature.  It  is  in  this  application  that 
the  most  powerful  interest  of  his  poetry  lies.  All  pheno 
mena,  moral  as  well  as  material,  are  contemplated  by  him 
in  their  relation  to  one  great  organic  whole,  which  he 
acknowledges  under  the  name  of  "Natura  daedala  rerum," 
and  the  most  beneficent  manifestations  of  which  he  seems 
to  symbolize  and  almost  to  deify  in  the  "  Alrna  Venus, ;) 
whom,  in  apparent  contradiction  to  his  denial  of  a  divine 
interference  with  human  affairs,  he  invokes  with  prayer  in 
the  opening  lines  of  the  poem.  In  this  conception  of 
nature  are  united  the  conceptions  of  law  and  order,  ot' 
ever-changing  life  and  interdependence,  of  immensity, 
individuality,  and  all-pervading  subtlety,  under  which  the 
universe  is  apprehended  both  by  his  intelligence  and  his 
imagination. 

Nothing  can  be  more  unlike  the  religious  and  moral 
attitude  of  Lucretius  than  the  old  popular  conception  of 
him  as  an  atheist  and  a  preacher  of  the  doctrine  of  pleasure. 
It  is  true  that  he  denies  the  two  bases  of  all  religion,  the 
doctrines  of  a  supernatural  government  of  the  world  and 
of  a  future  life.  But  his  arguments  against  the  first  are 
really  only  valid  against  the  limited  and  unworthy  concep 
tions  of  divine  agency  involved  in  the  ancient  religions  ; 
his  denial  of  the  second  is  prompted  by  his  vivid  realization 
of  all  that  is  meant  by  the  arbitrary  infliction  of  eternal 
torment  after  death.  His  war  with  the  popular  beliefs  of 
his  time  is  waged,  not  in  the  interests  of  licence,  but  in 
vindication  of  the  sanctity  of  human  feeling.  The  great 
and  cardinal  line  of  the  poem, 

"  Tantum  religio  potuit  suadere  malorum," 
is  elicited  from  him  as  his  protest  against  the  wicked  and 
impious  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia  by  the  hand  of  her  father. 
But  in  his  very  denial  of  a  cruel,  limited,  and  capricious 
agency  of  the  gods,  and  in  his  imaginative  recognition  of  an 
orderly,  all-pervading,  all-regulating  power, — the  "  Natura 
daedala  rerum," — we  rind  at  least  a  nearer  approach  to  the 
higher  conceptions  of  modern  theism  than  in  any  of  the 
other  imaginative  conceptions  of  ancient  poetry  and  art, 
unless  we  include  the  hymn  of  Cleanthes  among  the  utter 
ances  of  poets.  But  his  conception  even  of  the  ancient 
gods  and  of  their  indirect  influence  on  human  life  is  more 
worthy  than  the  popular  one.  They  are  conceived  of  by 
him  as  living  a  life  of  eternal  peace  and  exemption  from 
passion,  in  a  world  of  their  own  ;  and  the  highest  ideal  of 
man  is,  through  the  exercise  of  his  reason,  to  realize  an 
image  of  this  life, 

"  Ut  nil  impediat  dignam  dis  degere  vitam." 
Although  they  are  conceived  of  as  unconcerned  with  the 
interests  of  our  world,  yet  influences  are  supposed  to  emanate 
from  them  which  the  human  heart  is  capable  of  receiving 
and  assimilating.  The  effect  of  unworthy  conceptions  of 
the  divine  nature  is  that  they  render  a  man  incapable  of 
visiting  the  temples  of  the  gods  in  a  calm  spirit,  or  of 
receiving  the  emanations  "  divinse  nuntia  pacis  "  in  peace 
ful  tranquillity. 

"  Nee  delubra  deum  placido  cum  pectore  adibis, 
Nee  de  corpore  quse  sancto  simulacra  feruntur 
In  mentis  hominum  divinse  nuntia  pacis 
Suscipere  hsec  animi  tranquilla  pace  valebis."  1 

It  is  in  no  iconoclastic  spirit  that  he  regards  even  the 
temples  and  solemn  rites  of  the  gods,  except  when  he  finds 
the  acts  of  worship  tainted  with  "  the  foul  stain  of  super- 

1  "  Nor  wilt  tliou  approach  the  temples  of  the  gods  with  a  calm 
spirit,  nor  wilt  thou  be  able,  in  tranquil  peace  of  heart,  to  receive 
those  images  which  are  borne  from  their  holy  bodies  into  the  minds  of 
men,  carrying  tidings  of  the  divine  peace"  (vi.  75-78). 


L  U  C  — L  U  C 


55 


stition."  Thus  he  describes  with  a  grave  solemnity  of 
feeling  the  procession  of  the  image  of  Cybele  through  the 
cities  of  men,  and  acknowledges  the  beneficent  influence  of 
the  truths  symbolized  by  that  procession.  The  supposed 
"  atheism  "  of  Lucretius  proceeds  from  a  more  deeply 
reverential  spirit  than  that  of  the  majority  of  professed 
believers  in  all  times. 

His  moral  attitude  is  also  far  removed  from  that  either 
of  ordinary  ancient  Epicureanism  or  ordinary  modern 
materialism.  Though  he  acknowledges  pleasure  to  be  the 
law  of  life,  —  "dux  vitse  dia  voluptas,"  —  yet  he  is  far  from 
regarding  its  attainment  as  the  end  of  life.  What  man 
needs  is  not  enjoyment,  but  "  peace  and  a  pure  heart." 
"  At  bene  non  potorat  sine  puro  pcctore  vivi." 

The  victory  to  be  won  by  man  is  the  triumph  over  fear, 
ambition,  passion,  luxury.  With  the  conquest  over  these 
nature  herself  supplies  all  that  is  needed  for  happiness. 
Self-control  and  renunciation  are  the  lessons  which  he 
preaches  with  as  much  fervour  and  as  real  conviction  as 
any  of  the  preachers  of  Stoicism.  "  Great  riches  consist  in 
living  plainly  with  a  contented  spirit  "  — 

"  Diviti;e  grandes  homini  sunt  vivere  pare* 
animo." 


As  was  mentioned  above,  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
short  criticism  of  Cicero  ("Lucretii  poemata,"  <fec.)  con 
cedes  to  Lucretius  the  gifts  of  genius  or  the  accomplishment 
of  art.  Readers  of  a  later  time,  who  could  compare  his 
work  with  the  finished  works  of  the  Augustan  age,  would, 
if  they  refused  his  claim  to  the  full  possession  of  the  two 
necessary  constituents  of  the  greatest  poets,  have  certainly 
disparaged  his  art  rather  than  his  power.  But  with  Cicero 
it  was  different.  He  greatly  admired,  or  professed  to 
admire,  the  genius  of  the  early  Roman  poets,  while  he 
shows  that  indifference  to  the  poetical  genius  of  his  younger 
contemporaries  which  men  who  have  formed  their  taste 
for  puetry  in  youth,  and  whose  own  intellectual  interests 
have  been  practical  and  political,  often  do  to  the  new  ideas 
and  new  modes  of  feeling  which  an  original  poet  brings  into 
the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  as  one  who  had  himself 
written  many  verses  in  his  youth,  and  as  one  of  the  greatest 
masters  of  style  who  have  ever  lived,  he  could  not  have 
been  insensible  to  the  immense  superiority  in  rhythmical 
smoothness  which  the  hexameter  of  Lucretius  has  over  that 
of  Ennius  and  Lucilius.  And  no  reader  of  Lucretius  can 
doubt  that  he  attached  the  greatest  importance  to  artistic 
execution,  and  that  he  took  a  great  pleasure,  not  only  in 
propelling  "the  long  roll  of  his  hexameter"  to  its  culmi 
nating  break  at  the  conclusion  of  some  weighty  paragraph, 
but  also  in  producing  the  effects  of  alliteration,  assonance, 
&c.,  which  are  so  marked  a  peculiarity  in  the  style  of 
Plautus  and  the  earlier  Roman  poets.  He  allows  his  taste 
for  these  tricks  of  style,  which,  when  used  with  moderation 
by  writers  of  a  more  finished  sense  of  art  such  as  Virgil 
and  even  Terence,  have  the  happiest  effect,  to  degenerate 
into  mannerism.  And  this  is  the  only  drawback  to  the 
impression  of  absolute  spontaneity  which  his  style  produces. 
But  those  who  recognize  in  him  one  of  the  most  powerful 
and  original  poetical  forces  which  have  appeared  in  the 
world  feel,  when  they  compare  him  with  the  greatest  poets 
of  all  times,  that  he  was  unfortunate  in  living  before  the 
natural  rudeness  of  Latin  art  —  the  "  traces  of  the  country," 
which  continued  to  linger  "  in  rude  Latium  "  down  to  the 
time  of  Horace  —  had  been  successfully  grappled  with. 
His  only  important  precursors  in  serious  poetry  were 
Ennius  and  Lucilius,  and,  though  he  derived  from  the  first 
of  these  an  impulse  to  shape  the  Latin  tongue  into  a  fitting 
vehicle  for  the  expression  of  elevated  emotion  and  imagina 
tive  conception,  he  could  find  in  neither  a  guide  to  follow 
in  the  task  he  set  before  himself.  He  had  thus,  in  a  great 


measure,  to  discover  the  way  for  himself,  and  to  act  as  the 
pioneer  to  those  who  came  after  him.  The  difficulty  and 
novelty  of  his  task  enhances  our  sense  of  his  power.  His 
finest  passages  are  thus  characterized  by  a  freshness  of 
feeling  and  enthusiasm  of  discovery,  as  of  one  ascending, 
alone  and  for  the  first  time,  the  "  pathless  heights  of  the 
Muses."1  But  the  result  of  these  conditions  and  of  his  own 
inadequate  conception  of  the  proper  limits  of  his  art  is 
that  more  than  in  the  case  of  any  other  work  of  genius  his 
best  poetry  is  clogged  with  a  great  mass  of  alien  matter, 
which  no  treatment  in  the  world  could  have  made  poetically 
endurable.  If  the  distinction  suggested  by  a  brilliant 
living  poet  and  critic  between  the  Titans  and  the 
Olympians  of  literature  be  a  valid  one,  it  is  among  the 
former  certainly  that  Lucretius  is  to  be  classed. 

The  genius  of  Lucretius,  as  of  all  the  greatest  poets, 
does  not  reveal  itself  as  any  mere  isolated  or  exceptional 
faculty,  but  as  the  impassioned  and  imaginative  movement 
of  his  whole  moral  and  intellectual  being.  It  is  the  force 
through  which  the  sincerity  and  simplicity,  the  reverence, 
the  courage,  the  whole  heart  of  the  man  have  found  an 
outlet  for  themselves.  It  is  also  the  force  from  which  both 
his  speculative  and  his  observant  faculty  derive  their  most 
potent  impulse.  His  poetical  style  is  as  simple,  sensuous, 
and  passionate  as  that  of  the  poets  who  reproduce  only  the 
immediate  appearances* and  impressions  of  the  world  of 
nature  and  of  human  feeling.  But  it  assumes  a  more 
majestic  and  elevated  tone  from  the  recognition  of  the 
truth  that  the  beauty  of  the  world,  the  unceasing  life  and 
movement  in  nature,  the  destructive  as  well  as  the  bene 
ficent  forces  of  the  elements,  the  whole  wonder  and  pathos 
of  human  existence,  are  themselves  manifestations  of  secret 
invisible  agencies  and  of  eternal  and  immutable  laws. 

The  fullest  account  of  the  MSS.  and  of  the  various  editions  of 
Lucretius,  and  of  the  influence  which  he  exercised  on  the  later 
poets  of  Rome,  is  to  be  found  in  the  introductions  to  the  critical  and 
explanatory  notes  of  Mr  Munro's  edition  of  the  poet,  a  work  recog 
nized  as  the  most  important  contribution  to  Latin  scholarship 
made  in  England  during  the  present  century.  For  scholars  that 
edition  contains  all  that  is  needed  for  the  full  understanding  of  the 
author.  For  those  who  are  not  classical  scholars,  the  work  of 
C.  Martha,  Le  Poeme  dc  Lucrece,  may  be  recommended,  as  containing 
an  interesting  and  eloquent  estimate  of  the  genius  of  the  poet,  and 
of  his  moral,  religious,  and  scientific  position.  Among  recent 
English  works  on  the  author,  an  essay,  by  Professor  Veitch,  aad 
one  by  Mr  J.  A.  Symonds,  are  especially  good.  The  subject  is 
also  discussed  at  length  in  chaps,  xi.-xiv.  of  the  Roman  Poets 
of  the  Republic,  by  Professor  Sellar.  (W.  Y.  S. ) 

LUCULLUS.  The  Luculli  appear  in  Roman  history 
shortly  after  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war.  They 
belonged  to  the  Licinian  "  gens,"  a  plebeian  house  which 
became  noted  for  its  special  ability  in  amassing  wealth. 
By  far  the  most  famous  of  its  members  was  Lucius  Licinius 
Lucullus,  surnamed  Ponticus  from  his  victorious  campaigns 
in  Asia  Minor  against  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies 
Rome  ever  encountered,  the  great  Mithridates,  king  of 
Pontus.  His  father  had  held  an  important  military  com 
mand  in  Sicily,  but  on  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  considered 
to  have  acquitted  himself  so  discreditably  that  he  was  pro 
secuted  on  a  charge  of  bribery  and  corrupt  practices,  and 
was  condemned  to  exile.  His  mother  was  Csecilia,  of  the 
family  of  the  Metelli,  and  was  the  sister  of  the  distinguished 
Metellus  Numidicus.  The  career  of  Lucullus  coincides  with 
the  first  half  of  the  1st  century  B.C.  It  appears  that  he 
was  rather  senior  to  Pompey,  who  was  born  in  106  B.C. 
We  hear  of  him  when  quite  a  young  man  as  making  a 
determined  though  unsuccessful  attempt  to  avenge  his 
father's  downfall  on  the  author  of  the  prosecution,  and 
this  won  him  credit  and  popularity.  Early  in  life  he 
attached  himself  to  the  party  of  Sulla,  and  to  that  party 

1    "  Avia  Pieridum  peragro  loca,  nullius  ante 
Trita  solo." 


LUOULLUS 


ho  rem.iiued  constant  to  his  life's  end.  Sulla's  favourable 
notice  was  secured  by  good  military  service  in  the  so-called 
Social  War,  which  finally  completed  the  subjugation  of 
Rome's  Italian  allies  and  in  fact  of  the  whole  peninsula. 
In  88  B.C.  came  the  great  Mithridatic  war  in  the  East, 
with  the  direction  of  which  Sulla  was  charged.  In  that 
year  the  young  Lucullus  went  with  him  as  his  quaestor  to 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and,  while  Sulla  was  besieging 
Athens,  he  raised  a  fleet  and  drove  Mithridates  out  of  the 
Mediterranean.  He  won  a  brilliant  victory  off  Tenedos, 
and  it  seems  probable  that,  had  he  been  as  faithful  to  Rome 
as  he  was  to  Sulla  and  his  party,  he  might  have  ended 
a  perilous  war.  But,  like  many  of  his  contemporaries, 
Lucullus  was  too  much  of  a  party  man  to  be  a  genuine 
patriot. 

In  84  B.C.  peace  was  concluded  with  Mithridates,  and 
the  great  king  had  to  cede  the  Greek  islands  and  a  large 
part  of  his  Asiatic  possessions,  and  was  practically  reduced  to 
the  position  of  a  mere  Roman  dependant.  Sulla  returned 
to  Rome,  while  Lucullus  remained  in  Asia,  and  by  a  series  of 
wise  and  generous  financial  reforms  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  future  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  province.  The 
result  of  his  policy  was  that  he  stood  particularly  well  with 
the  provincials,  but  unfortunately  for  himself  made  a  host 
of  enemies  among  the  powerful  class  which  farmed  the 
public  revenue.  He  was  in  Asia  till  80  B.C.,  and  then 
returned  to  Rome  as  curule  aedile,  in  which  capacity  he 
exhibited  together  with  his  colleague,  his  brother  Marcus, 
games  which  were  long  remembered  by  the  citizens  of  Rome 
for  their  exceptional  magnificence.  We  may  infer  that 
thus  early  in  life  he  had  found  the  means  of  acquiring  an 
immense  fortune,  which  throughout  his  whole  career  it 
was  his  delight  lavishly  to  display.  Soon  afterwards  he 
was  elected  prcetor,  and  was  next  appointed  to  the  pro 
vince  of  Africa,  where  again  lie  won  a  good  name  as  a  just 
and  considerate  governor.  In  the  year  74  B.C.  he  became 
consul,  with  Aurelius  Cotta  as  his  colleague.  An  attempt 
was  made  at  this  time  by  a  leader  of  the  democratic  party 
to  repeal  the  legislation  of  Sulla,  and  its  failure  appears  to 
hive  been  mainly  due  to  the  strenuous  efforts  of  Lucullus 

The  East  was  now  again  unsettled,  and  Bithynia,  which 
had  been  bequeathed  to  Rome  by  its  king  Nicomedes,  was 
threatened  by  Mithridates.  The  new  province  with  the 
command  of  the  fleet  fell  to  Cotta,  but  Lucullus  was  called 
to  lead  the  armies  of  Rome  against  this  dangerous  enemy. 
In  74  B.C.  he  was  in  Asia  at  the  head  of  a  force  of  about 
30,000  foot  and  2000  horse.  The  king  of  Pontus  was 
already  on  Roman  ground  in  Bithynia,  and  Cotta  was 
shut  up  in  Chalcedon  on  the  Propontis  by  a  vast  host  of 
150,000  men.  The  enemy's  fleet  had  forced  its  way  into 
the  harbour,  and  had  burnt  all  the  Roman  vessels  lying  at 
anchor.  The  advance  of  Lucullus,  however,  forced  the 
king  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire  along  the  sea-coast,  till 
Ii3  halted  before  the  strong  city  of  Cyzicus,  the  key  of  Asia, 
as  it  was  called,  built  on  an  island  at  a  little  distance  from 
the  mainland,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  a  bridge. 
All  the  attempts  of  Mithridates  on  the  place  were  foiled 
by  a  gallant  defence,  and  it  was  not  long  before  Lucullus 
took  up  a  threatening  position  in  the  rear  of  his  army, 
which  cut  off  all  his  land  communications  and  left  him 
only  master  of  the  sea.  Bad  weather  and  violent  storms 
and  scant  supplies  soon  drove  the  king  from  the  walls  of 
Cy/ieus,  and  his  vast  army  was  dispersed  without  having 
had  the  chance  of  fighting  a  single  pitched  battle.  His 
fleet  too,  which  a?  yet  had  had  the  command  of  the 
^gean,  was  soon  afterwards  destroyed  by  Lucullus,  and 
thus  his  whole  power  for  offensive  warfare  had  completely 
collapsed.  He  himself  withdrew  into  his  own  proper 
territory,  and  all  that  the  Roman  general  had  to  fear  was 
that  he  might  baffle  pursuit  by  a  flight  eastward  into  the 


remote  wilds  of  Armenia.  However,  in  the  autumn  of  73 
B.C.,  Lucullus  pushed  into  the  heart  of  Pontus  far  beyond 
the  Halys,  the  limit  of  the  famous  Scipio's  advance  east 
ward,  and  continued  his  onward  march,  regardless  of  the 
murmurs  of  his  weary  soldiery,  to  Cabeira  or  Neocsesarea 
(now  Niksar),  where  the  king  had  gone  into  winter 
quarters  with  a  vague  hope  that  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes, 
the  powerful  king  of  Armenia,  and  possibly  even  the 
Parthians,  might,  for  their  own  sakes,  come  to  his  aid 
against  a  common  foe.  It  was  by  a  very  toilsome  march 
through  difficult  roads  that  the  Roman  army  at  last  reached 
Cabeira,  to  find  themselves  confronted  by  a  greatly  superior 
force.  But  the  troops  of  Mithridates  were  no  more  a  match 
for  the  Roman  legionaries  than  were  the  Persians  for 
Alexander,  and  a  large  detachment  of  his  army  was 
decisively  cut  up  by  one  of  Lucullus's  lieutenant-generals. 
The  king  decided  on  instant  retreat,  but  the  retreat  soon 
became  a  disorderly  flight,  and  Lucullus,  seizing  the 
moment  for  attack,  annihilated  his  enemy,  Mithridates 
himself  escaping  with  difficulty  over  the  mountain  range 
between  Pontus  and  Cappadocia  into  Lesser  Armenia.  He 
found  a  sort  of  refuge  in  the  dominions  of  Tigranes,  but 
he  was  in  fact  detained  as  a  prisoner  rather  than  received 
as  an  honoured  friend  and  ally. 

Pontus  thus,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  maritime 
cities,  such  as  Sinope,  Heraclea,  and  Amisus,  which  still 
clung  to  the  king  under  whom  they  had  enjoyed  a  free 
Greek  constitution,  became  Roman  territory.  Two  years 
were  occupied  in  the  siege  and  capture  of  these  strongholds, 
while  Lucullus  busied  himself  with  a  general  reform  of  the 
administration  of  the  province  of  Asia.  His  next  step  was 
to  demand  the  surrender  of  Mithridates  and  to  threaten 
Tigranes  with  war  in  the  event  of  refusal.  He  had  indeed 
no  direct  authority  from  the  home  government  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Armenia,  but  he  may  well  have  supposed 
that  in  invading  the  country  he  would  be  following  out 
Sulla's  policy,  and  securing  Rome  in  the  East  from  a  serious 
danger.  Nor  was  it  unnatural  that  there  should  be  a 
fascination  in  the  idea  of  winning  renown  in  the  distant 
and  almost  unknown  regions  beyond  the  Euphrates.  In 
the  spring  of  the  year  69  B.C.,  at  the  head  of  only  two 
legions,  which,  it  appears,  by  no  means  liked  the  hardships 
of  the  expedition,  he  marched  through  Sophene,  the  south 
western  portion  of  Armenia,  crossed  the  Tigris,  and  pushed 
on  to  the  newly-built  royal  city,  Tigranocerta,  situated  on 
one  of  the  affluents  of  that  river.  A  motley  host,  made  up 
out  of  the  tribes  bordering  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  hovered  round  his  small  army,  but  failed  to 
hinder  him  from  laying  siege  to  the  town.  On  this 
occasion  Lucullus  showed  consummate  military  capacity, 
contriving  to  maintain  the  siege  and  at  the  same  time  to 
give  battle  to  the  enemy  with  a  force  which  must  have 
been  inferior  in  the  ratio  of  something  like  one  to  twenty. 
According  to  his  own  account  he  put  the  Armenians  to 
rout  with  a  loss  of  five  Roman  soldiers,  leaving  100,000 
dead  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  victory  before  the  walls 
of  Tigranocerta  was  undoubtedly  a  very  glorious  one  for 
the  arms  of  Rome,  and  it  resulted  in  the  dissolution  of  the 
Armenian  king's  extensive  empire.  There  might  now  have 
been  peace  but  for  the  interference  of  Mithridates,  who  for 
his  own  sake  pressed  Tigranes  to  renew  the  war  and  to  seek 
the  aid  and  alliance  of  Parthia.  The  Parthian  king,  how 
ever,  was  disposed  to  prefer  a  treaty  with  Rome  to  a  treaty 
with  Armenia,  and  desired  simply  to  have  the  Euphrates 
recognized  as  his  western  boundary.  Mithridates  next 
appealed  to  the  national  spirit  of  the  peoples  of  the  East 
generally,  and  endeavoured  to  rouse  them  to  a  united  effort 
against  Roman  aggression.  He  hoped  to  crush  his  enemy 
amid  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  and  indeed  the  position 
of  Lucullus  was  highly  critical.  The  home  government 


L  U  D  — L  U  1) 


was  for  recalling  him,  and  seemed  to  think  little  of  his 
splendid  successes ;  and  his  little  army,  which  one  might 
have  been  supposed  would  have  been  proud  of  their  general, 
was  on  the  verge  of  mutiny.  One  can  hardly  understand 
how  under  such  circumstances  Lucullus  should  have  per 
sisted  in  marching  his  men  northwards  from  Tigranocerta 
over  the  high  table-land  of  central  Armenia,  with  the 
enemy's  cavalry  and  innumerable  mounted  archers  hanging 
on  his  columns,  in  the  hope  of  reaching  the  distant  Artaxata 
on  the  Araxes.  The  vexation  of  his  troops  broke  out  into 
an  open  mutiny,  which  compelled  him  to  recross  the  Tigris 
into  the  Mesopotamia!!  valley.  Here,  on  a  dark  tem 
pestuous  night,  he  surprised  and  stormed  Nisibis,  the 
capital  of  the  Armenian  district  of  Mesopotamia,  and  in 
this  city,  which  yielded  him  a  rich  booty,  he  found  satis 
factory  winter  quarters. 

Meantime  Mithridates  was  again  in  Pontus,  and  the 
Roman  forces  which  had  been  left  there  were  soon  over 
whelmed.  In  one  disastrous  engagement  at  Ziela  the 
Roman  camp  was  taken  and  the  army  slaughtered  to  a 
man.  Lucullus  was  still  thwarted  by  the  mutinous  spirit 
of  his  troops,  and  after  all  his  brilliant  achievements  he 
was  obliged  to  pursue  his  retreat  into  Asia  Minor  with  the 
full  knowledge  that  Tigranes  and  Mithridates  were  the 
unresisted  masters  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia.  The  work 
of  eight  years  of  war  was  undone.  Commissioners  sent 
from  Rome  to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  East  had  to  report 
to  the  senate  that  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor  was  in  the 
enemy's  hands.  In  the  year  66  B.C.  Lucullus  was  recalled, 
and  superseded  in  his  command  by  Pompey. 

He  hid  indeed  fairly  earned  by  his  brilliant  victories 
the  honour  of  a  triumph,  but  he  had  powerful  enemies  at 
Rome,  and  charges  of  maladministration,  to  which  no  doubt 
his  immense  wealth  gave  no  unreasonable  colour,  caused  it 
to  be  deferred  for  three  years.  In  63  B.C.,  however,  it  was 
celebrated  with  extraordinary  magnificence.  By  this  time 
Lucullus  seems  to  have  felt  that  he  had  done  his  work. 
He  had  little  taste  for  the  increasingly  turbulent  political 
contests  of  the  time,  and,  with  the  exception  of  occasional 
appearances  in  public  life,  he  gave  himself  up  to  elegant 
luxury,  with  which,  however,  he  combined  a  sort  of  dilettante 
pursuit  of  philosophy,  literature,  and  art.  Cicero,  who 
was  on  terms  of  close  intimacy  with  him,  always  speaks  of 
him  with  enthusiasm  and  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 
Lucullus  is  with  him  a  vir  fortissimus  et  clarissimus,  and  a 
man  too  of  the  highest  and  most  refined  intellectual  culture. 
As  a  provincial  governor,  in  his  humane  consideration  for 
the  conquered  and  his  statesmanlike  discernment  of  what 
was  best  suited  to  their  circumstances,  he  was  a  man  after 
Cicero's  own  heart.  In  this  respect  he  reminds  us  of  the 
younger  Pliny.  Very  possibly  Cicero  may  have  spoken 
too  flatteringly  of  him,  but  we  cannot  think  his  praise  was 
altogether  undeserved. 

As  a  soldier,  considering  what  he  achieved  and  the 
victories  he  won  with  but  small  forces  under  peculiarly 
unfavourable  conditions,  he  must  have  been  a  man  of  no 
ordinary  capacity.  It  is  true  that  he  does  not  seem  to 
have  hid  the  confidence  of  his  troops  to  the  extent  to 
which  a  great  general  ought  to  possess  it,  and  it  is  just 
possible  that  he  may  have  erred  on  the  side  of  an  excessive 
aristocratic  hauteur,  which  to  his  men  may  have  looked 
like  a  selfish  indifference  to  their  hardships.  But  it  is  also 
possible  that  out  of  a  strict  regard  to  the  lives  and  property 
of  the  provincials  he  may  have  been  too  strict  a  discipli 
narian  for  the  taste  of  the  soldiers.  Some  of  his  unpopu 
larity,  it  is  pretty  certain,  was  due  to  the  restraints  which 
he  had  put  on  the  rapacity  of  the  capitalists,  who  thought 
themselves  aggrieved  if  they  could  not  make  rapid  and 
enormous  fortunes  by  farming  the  revenue  of  the  rich  pro 
vinces  of  the  East.  We  can  hardly  doubt  that  with  very 


decided  aristocratic  feeling  and  thorough  devotion  to  his 
political  party  Lucullus  combined  much  generous  upright 
ness  and  kindliness  of  heart. 

His  name  calls  up  before  the  mind  visions  of  boundless 
luxury  and  magnificence,  and  among  the  Roman  nobles 
who  revelled  in  the  newly  acquired  riches  of  the  East 
Lucullus,  it  is  certain,  stood  pre-eminent.  His  park  and 
pleasure  grounds  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  capital 
were  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  his  own  and  of  the 
succeeding  age.  Pompey  is  said  to  have  styled  him  the 
Roman  Xerxes,  in  allusion,  not  only  to  his  splendour,  but 
also  to  the  costly  and  laborious  works  to  be  seen  in  his 
parks  and  villas  at  Tusculum,  near  Naples,  where  rocks 
and  hills  had  been  pierced  at  an  almost  infinite  expense. 
On  one  of  his  luxurious  entertainments  he  is  said  to  have 
spent  upwards  of  X2000.  Far  the  most  pleasing  trait  in 
his  character  is  the  liberal  patronage  which  he  gave  more 
especially  to  Greek  philosophers  and  men  of  letters,  and 
the  fact  that  he  collected  a  vast  and  valuable  library,  to 
which  such  men  had  free  access.  On  the  whole  we  may 
tak<}  Lucullus  to  have  been  a  man  who  in  many  respects 
rose  above  his  age,  and  was  a  decidedly  favourable  speci 
men  of  a  great  Roman  noble. 

Of  his  latter  years  but  little  is  recorded.  He  had,  as 
we  have  seen,  almost  wholly  retired  from  public  life.  It 
appears  that  he  sank  into  a  condition  of  mental  feebleness 
and  imbecility  some  years  before  his  death,  and  was  obliged 
to  surrender  the  management  of  his  affairs  to  his  brother 
Marcus.  The  usual  funeral  panegyric  was  pronounced  on 
him  in  the  Forum,  and  the  people  would  have  had  him 
buried  by  the  side  of  the  great  Sulla  in  the  Campus 
Martius,  but  he  was  laid  at  his  brother's  special  request  in 
his  splendid  villa  at  Tusculum. 

The  best  account  of  Lucullus's  campaign  in  the  East  is  to  be  found 
in  Momnisen's  History  of  Rome,  bk.  v.  chap.  2.  Our  knowledge 
of  him  is  drawn  mainly  from  Plutarch,  Appian's  Mithridatic  War, 
the  epitomes  of  the  lost  books  of  Livy,  and  very  frequent  allusions 
to  him  in  Cicero's  works.  (W.  J.  B. ) 

LUDDITES,  THE,  were  organized  bands  of  rioters  for 
the  destruction  of  machinery,  who  made  their  first  ap 
pearance  in  Nottingham  and  the  neighbouring  midland 
districts  of  England  about  the  end  of  1811.  The  origin 
of  the  name  is  curious,  and  is  given  as  follows  in  the  Life 
of  Lord  Sid  mouth  (vol.  iii.  p.  80).  In  1779  there  lived  in  a 
village  in  Leicestershire  a  person  of  weak  intellect,  called 
Ned  Lud,  who  was  the  butt  of  the  boys  of  the  village. 
On  one  occasion  Lud  pursued  one  of  his  tormentors 
into  a  house  where  were  two  of  the  frames  used  in  the 
stocking  manufacture,  and,  not  being  able  to  catch  the. 
boy,  vented  his  anger  on  the  frames.  Afterwards,  when 
ever  any  frames  were  broken,  it  became  a  common  saying 
that  Lud  had  done  it.  It  is  curious  also  that  the  leader  of 
the  riotous  bands  took  the  name  of  General  Lud.  The 
Luddite  riots  arose  out  of  the  severe  distress  caused  by 
commercial  depression  and  the  consequent  want  of  employ 
ment.  They  were  specially  directed  against  machinery 
because  of  the  widespread  prejudice  that  its  use  directly 
operated  in  producing  a  scarcity  of  labour.  Apart 
from  the  prejudice,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  economic  and 
social  revolution  implied  in  the  change  from  manual  work 
to  work  by  machinery  should  give  rise  to  great  misery  by 
upsetting  all  the  old  industrial  habits  and  arrangements. 
The  riots  began  at  Nottingham,  in  November  1811,  with 
the  destruction  of  stocking  and  lace  frames,  and,  continu 
ing  through  the  winter  and  following  spring,  spread  into- 
Yorkshire  and  Lancashire.  They  were  met  by  severe 
repressive  legislation, — a  notable  feature  in  the  opposition 
to  it  being  Lord  Byron's  speech  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the 
first  which  he  delivered  there.  In  1816  the  rioting  was 
resumed,  through  the  fearful  depression  that  followed  on 
the  European  peace,  aggravated  by  one  of  the  worst  of 

XV.  —  8 


.58 


L  U  D  -  L  U  D 


recorded  harvests,  when  wheat  rose  from  52s.  Gd.  to  103s. 
a  quarter  (in  Yorkshire  it  was  more  than  a  guinea  a 
bushel),  when  the  corn  was  still  green  in  October,  and  the 
potato  crop  was  a  failure.  In  that  year,  though  the  centre 
of  the  rioting  was  again  in  Nottingham,  it  extended  over 
almost  the  whole  kingdom,  and  took  more  decidedly  the 
form  of  a  general  discontent  and  seditious  restlessness. 
The  rioters  were  also  thoroughly  organized.  While  part 
of  the  band  with  extraordinary  quickness  and  thoroughness 
destroyed  the  machinery  in  the  houses,  sentinels  were 
posted  to  give  warning  of  the  approach  of  the  military  and 
police  ;  and  all  had  generally  disappeared  before  the  least 
risk  of  discovery.  Under  the  influence  of  vigorous  re 
pressive  measures,  and  especially  of  reviving  prosperity, 
the  spirit  of  rioting  ere  long  died  out. 

See  the  Annual  Register  for  the  years  concerned;  Life  of  Lord 
Sidmouth,  by  the  Hon.  George  Pellew,  dean  of  Norwich,  vol.  iii. ; 
and  Spencer  Walpole,  History  of  England,  vol.  i. 

LUDHlANA,  a  district  in  the  lieutenant-governorship 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  lying  between  30°  33'  and  31°  1'  N. 
lat.  and  between  75°  24'  30"  and  70°  27'  E.  long.,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Sutlej  river,  on  the  E.  by 
Umballa  (Ambala)  district,  on  the  S.  by  Patiala,  Nabha, 
and  Maler  Kotla  states,  and  on  the  W.  by  Firozpur  district. 
The  surface  of  Ludhiana  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a 
broad  plain,  without  hills  or  rivers,  and  stretching  north 
ward  from  the  native  borders  to  the  ancient  bed  of  the 
Sutlej.  The  soil  is  composed  of  a  rich  clay,  broken  by 
large  patches  of  shifting  sand.  On  the  eastern  edge, 
towards  Umballa,  the  soil  improves  greatly,  the  clay  being 
here  surmounted  by  a  bed  of  rich  mould,  suitable  for  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  and  sugar-cane.  Towards  the  west 
the  sand  occurs  in  union  with  the  superficial  clay,  and 
forms  a  light  friable  soil,  on  which  cereals  form  the  most 
profitable  crop.  Even  here,  however,  the  earth  is  so 
retentive  of  moisture  that  gooi  harvests  are  reaped  from 
fields  which  appear  to  the  eye  mere  stretches  of  dry  and 
sindy  waste,  but  are  covered,  after  the  autumn  rains,  by 
waving  sheets  of  wheat  and  millet.  These  southern 
uplands  descend  to  the  valley  of  the  Sutlej  by  an  abrupt 
terrace,  which  marks  the  former  bsd  of  the  river.  The 
principal  stream  has  now  shifted  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  valley,  leaving  a  broad  alluvial  strip,  10  miles  in  width, 
between  its  ancient  and  its  modem  bed.  The  Sutlej  itself 
is  here  only  navigable  for  boats  of  small  burden.  A 
branch  of  the  Sirhind  Canal,  now  in  course  of  construction, 
will  irrigate  a  large  part  of  the  western  pargands.  At 
present  irrigation  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  wells. 
The  district  is  singularly  bare  of  trees. 

The  census  of  1868  returned  a  total  population  of  583,245  persons 
(319,342  males  and  263,903  females),  spread  over  an  area  of  1359 
square  miles,  inhabiting  879  villages  and  towns,  and  151,934  houses. 
Hindus  numbered  219,371  ;  Mohammedans,  206,603  ;  Sikhs, 
95,463  ;  and  "others,"  61,858.  In* ethnical  classification  the  Jats 
rank  first,  both  in  number  (205,304)  and  in  agricultural  importance  ; 
they  form  one-third  of  the  total  population,  and  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  cultivating  class.  The  Gujars  come  next  with  30,009  persons. 
Rajputs  number  23,961,  and  cluster  thickly  in  the  fertile  strip 
along  the  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  Though  they  hold  the  richest  portion 
pf  the  district,  they  are  but  careless  and  improvident  cultivators. 
Brahmans  number  21,165,  but  their  social  importance  is  small,  and 
they  own  but  a  single  village.  The  mercantile  classes  are  repre 
sented  by  15,251  Kshattriyas  and  8174  Banias.  There  are  also 
5549  Kashmiris,  employed  in  weaving  shawls  and  woollen  goods. 
Four  towns  were  returned  in  1868  as  containing  upwards  of  5000 
inhabitants,  viz.,  Ludhiana,  39,983  ;  Raikot,  9165  ;  Jagraon,  7096  ; 
and  Machiwara,  6062.  Ludhiana  is  a  flourishing  agricultural  dis 
trict  in  spite  of  the  general  unpromising  appearance  of  its  soil,  a 
result  mainly  attributable  to  the  untiring  diligence  of  its  Jat  culti 
vators.  Almost  all  the  available  land  has  been  brought  under  the 
plough,  and  in  many  villages  no  waste  land  is  left  for  pasturage,  the 
cattle  being  fed  from  cultivated  produce.  Under  rail  or  spring  crops 
there  were  in  1872-73  198,279  acres  of  wheat,  30,620  of  barley, 
162,649  of  gram,  and  576  of  poppy.  The  kharif  or  rain  crops 
comprised  129,589  acres  of  jodr,  49,047  of  Indian  corn,  55,293  of 


moth,  and  15,894  of  cotton.  In  spite  of  their  industrious  habits, 
many  of  the  peasantry  are  deeply  in  debt,  and  -the  rate  of  interest 
is  high.  Most  of  the  land  is  held  by  tenants-at-will.  Agricultural 
labourers  are  paid  in  grain  ;  in  the  towns,  unskilled  labour  is  paid 
at  the  rate  of  from  3d.  to  4Jd.  per  diem.  Ludhiana  is  comparatively 
free  from  danger  of  actual  famine,  though  it  suffers  much  from 
drought.  The  exports,  of  which  the  annual  value  is  estimated  at 
£377,120,  are  chiefly  confined  to  grain,  cotton,  wool,  saltpetre,  and 
indigo  ;  the  principal  imports  (£365,552)  are  English  goods,  spices, 
and  red  madder  dye.  Manufactures  include  shawls,  pashmina 
cloth,  stockings,  gloves,  cotton  goods,  furniture,  carriages,  and  fire 
arms.  Eight  large  silk  factories  and  upwards  of  four  hundred  private 
silk-looms  give  employment  to  over  three  thousand  persons.  Com 
munication  is  afforded  by  the  Sind,  Punjab,  and  Delhi  Railway, 
which  runs  through  the  centre  of  the  district,  and  by  several  lines 
of  good  metalled  roads. 

The  administrative  staff  of  the  district  comprises  a  deputy  com 
missioner,  with  an  assistant  and  two  extra  assistants,  a  small-cause 
court  judge,  and  three  tahsllddrs,  besides  the  usual  medical  and  con 
stabulary  officers.  The  total  revenue  in  1872-73  was  £103,795,  of 
which  £85,215  was  contributed  by  the  land  tax.  Education  in 
1873  was  afforded  by  184  schools,  of  which  68  were  in  receipt  of 
Government  grants  in  aid  ;  the  total  number  of  enrolled  pupils 
was  6733.  In  the  upland  portion  of  the  district  the  atmosphere 
is  dry  and  healthy  ;  in  the  Sutlej  valley,  however,  the  air  is 
extremely  noxious  after  the  rainy  season  floods,  and  fever  prevails 
often  in  an  epidemic  form  ;  ophthalmia  is  also  common.  The 
mean  temperature  in  1872  was  87°'59  Fahr.  in  May,  85°'67  in  July, 
and  54°'85  in  December,  the  maximum  being  117°,  and  the  mini 
mum  31°.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  28  inches. 

History. — Though  the  present  town  of  Ludhiana  dates  no  farther 
back  than  the  15th  century,  other  cities  in  the  district  can  claim  a 
much  greater  antiquity.  At  Sunet,  close  to  the  modern  station, 
are  ruins  of  an  extensive  brick-built  town,  whose  greatness  had 
already  passed  away  before  the  period  of  Mohammedan  invasion  ; 
and  the  old  Hindu  city  of  Machiwara  is  of  still  earner  date,  being 
mentioned  in  the  Malidbhdrata.  During  the  Mussulman  epoch,  the 
history  of  the  district  is  bound  up  with  that  of  the  Rais  of  Raikot, 
a  family  of  converted  Rajputs,  who  received  the  country  as  a  fief 
under  the  Sayyid  dynasty,  about  the  year  1445.  The  town  of 
Ludhiana  was  founded  in  1480  by  two  of  the  Lodi  race  (then  ruling 
at  Delhi),  from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  and  was  built  in  great 
part  from  the  prehistoric  bricks  of  Sunet.  The  Lodis  continued  in 
possession  until  1620,  when  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Rais 
of  Raikot.  Throughout  the  palmy  days  of  the  Mughal  empire  the 
Raikot  family  held  sway,  but  the  Sikhs  took  advantage  of  the 
troubled  period  which  accompanied  the  Mughal  decadence  to  estab 
lish  their  supremacy  south  of  the  Sutlej.  Several  of  their  chieftains 
made  encroachments  on  the  domains  of  the  Rais,  who  were  only 
able  to  hold  their  own  by  the  aid  of  George  Thomas,  the  famous 
adventurer  of  Hariana.  In  1806  Ranjit  Sinn  crossed  the  Sutlej  and 
reduced  the  obstinate  Mohammedan  family,  and  distributed  their 
territory  amongst  his  own  co-religionists.  Since  the  British  occupa 
tion  of  the  Punjab  Ludhiana  has  grown  in  wealth  and  population, 
but  its  history  has  been  uneventful. 

LUDHIANA,  the  chief  town  and  headquarters  station  of 
Ludhiana  district,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  old 
bed  of  the  Sutlej,  8  miles  from  the  present  bed  of  the 
river,  in  30°  55'  25"  N.  lat.  and  75°  53'  30"  E.  long. 
The  population  in  1868  was  39,983,  viz.,  Mohammedans, 
27,860;  Hindus,  10,208;  Sikhs,  45;  Christians,  79; 
"others,"  1791.  The  Kashmiris  retain  their  hereditary 
skill  as  weavers  of  shawls  and  pashmina  cloth,  the  value 
of  the  quantity  exported -in  1871-72  being  returned  at 
£13,350.  Shawls  of  the  soft  Rampur  wool,  cotton  cloths, 
scarfs,  turbans,  furniture,  and  carriages  also  form  large 
items  in  the  thriving  trade  of  the  town.  Since  the  open 
ing  of  the  railway  Ludhiana  has  become  a  great  central 
grain  mart,  having  extensive  export  transactions  both  with 
the  north  and  south.  The  American  Presbyterian  Mission 
has  a  church  and  school,  with  a  small  colony  of  native 
Christians.  The  town  bears  a  bad  reputation  for  un- 
healthiness. 

LUDLOW,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  and 
market-town  of  Shropshire,  England,  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Teme  and  Corve  on  the  borders  of  Here 
fordshire,  27  miles  south-east  from  Shrewsbury  and  10  north 
from  Leominster.  The  old  castle,  on  an  eminence  above 
the  Teme,  presents  an  imposing  and  massive  appearance, 
the  Norman  towers  and  the  greater  part  of  the  walls  being 


L  U  D— L  U  D 


59 


still  complete.  The  parish  church  of  St  Lawrence,  a  fine 
cruciform  structure  in  the  Gothic  style,  with  a  lofty  central 
tower,  dates  from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.;  it  was 
restored  in  1859-60.  The  grammar  school,  founded 
in  tha  reign  of  John,  was  incorporated  by  Edward  L 
The  other  principal  public  buildings  are  the  guild-hall,  the 
town-hall  and  market-house,  and  the  public  rooms,  which 
include  the  assembly-rooms  and  a  museum  of  natural 
history.  Tanning  and  malting  are  carried  on  to  a  small 
extent,  and  there  are  also  flour-mills.  The  population  of  the 
municipal  borough  (280  acres)  in  1871  was  5087,  and  in 
1881  5035.  The  population  of  the  parliamentary  borough 
(1371  acres)  in  the  same  years  was  6203  and  6663. 

Ludlow  is  said  to  have  existed  as  a  British  town  under  the  name 
of  Dinan.  After  the  Conquest  it  was  granted  to  Roger  de 
Montgomery,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  castle. 
For  some  time  the  castle  was  a  royal  residence,  and  from  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  to  that  of  William  III.  it  was  the  seat  of  the  council 
of  the  marches.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  it  was  garrisoned  for  the 
king,  but  it  surrendered  to  the  parliamentary  forces  in  June  1646. 
The  town  had  a  charter  of  incorporation  at  a  very  early  period, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Edward  IV- 

LUDLOW,  EDMUND  (1620-1693),  was  born  at  Maiden 
Bradley,  Wiltshire,  in  1620,  of  an  ancient  and  honourable 
family.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (where  he 
took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1636),  and  at  the  Temple.  When 
the  war  broke  out  he  engaged  as  a  volunteer  in  the  life 
guard  of  Lord  Essex,  consisting  of  one  hundred  gentlemen. 
His  first  essay  in  arms  was  at  Worcester,  his  next  at  Edge- 
hill.  He  was  made  governor  of  Wardour  Castle  in  1643, 
which  place  he  surrendered  on  honourable  terms  after  ten 
months'  siege.  On  being  exchanged  soon  afterwards,  he 
engaged  as  major  of  Sir  A.  Haslerig's  regiment  of  horse,' 
in  which  capacity  he  did  good  service  in  the  western 
counties.  He  was  present  at  the  second  battle  of  New- 
bury,  October  1644.  In  1645  he  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Wilts  in  the  room  of  his  father  Sir  Henry  Ludlow,  and 
attached  himself  inflexibly  to  the  republican  party.  In 
1648  he  was  one  of  a  committee  of  six  who  arranged  the 
violent  action  known  as  Pride's  Purge.  He  was  one  of  the 
king's  judges,  and  put  his  hand  to  the  warrant  for  his 
execution.  In  January  1651  Ludlow  was  sent  into  Ireland 
as  lieutenant-general  of  horse,  holding  also  a  civil  com 
mission.  Here  he  spared  neither  health  nor  money  in 
the  public  service.  Ireton,  the  deputy  of  Ireland,  died 
27th  November  1651,  and  for  six  months  Ludlow  held 
the  chief  place,  which  he  then  resigned  to  Fleetwood. 
Though  disapproving  of  Cromwell's  action  in  dissolving 
the  Long  Parliament,  he  maintained  his  employment,  but 
when  Cromwell  was  declared  Protector  he  declined  to 
acknowledge  his  authority,  and  was  soon  after  recalled  to 
England.  He  refused  the  Protector  face  to  face  when 
ordered  to  submit  to  his  government,  and  in  December 
1655  retired  to  his  own  bouse  in  Essex.  After  Oliver 
Cromwell's  death  Ludlow  was  returned  for  the  borough  of 
Hindon,  and  took  his  seat  in  Pilchard's  parliament  in  1659. 
He  sat  also  in  the  restored  Rump,  and  was  a  member  of  its 
council  of  state  and  of  the  committee  of  safety  after  its  second 
expulsion.  He  also  held  office  for  a  short  time  in  Ireland. 
After  the  Restoration,  finding  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  he 
left  England,  in  September  1660,  and  travelled  through 
France  and  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Vevey,  then  under  the  pro 
tection  of  the  canton  of  Bern.  There  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
long  life  unmolested,  to  the  great  credit  of  the  Government 
of  that  canton,  which  had  also  extended  its  protection  to 
other  regicides.  He  was,  however,  in  constant  danger  from 
Cavalier  assassins.  He  steadily  refused  during  thirty  years 
of  exile  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  desperate  enter 
prises  of  republican  plotters.  But  in  1689  he  returned  to 
England,  hoping  to  be  employed  in  Irish  affairs.  He  was, 
however,  known  only  as  a  regicide ;  and  an  address  from 


the  House  of  Commons  was  presented  to  William  III.  by 
Sir  Edward  Seymour,  requesting  the  king  to  issue  a  pro 
clamation  for  his  arrest.  Ludlow  escaped  again,  and 
returned  to  Vevey,  where  he  died  in  1693,  aged  seventy- 
three,  and  where  a  monument  raised  to  his  memory  by  his 
widow  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  church  of  St  Martin. 
Over  the  door  of  the  house  in  which  he  lived  was  placed 
the  inscription  "Omne  solum  forti  patria,  quia  Patris."  His 
memoirs,  extending  to  the  year  1688,  were  published  in 
1698-99  at  Vevey. 

LUDOLF,  or  LEUTHOLF,  HIOB  (1624-1704),  a  learned 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Erfurt  on  June  15,  1624.  At  an 
early  age  he  manifested  a  passion  for  the  acquisition  of 
foreign  tongues;  and  after  exhausting  the  imperfect 
educational  resources  of  his  native  place  he  went  in  1645 
to  Leyden,  where  for  upwards  of  a  year  he  was  the  pupil 
of  Erpenius,  Golius,  and  other  linguists.  Having  received 
an  appointment  as  tutor,  he  afterwards  travelled  in  France 
(where  he  became  acquainted  with  Bochart  at  Caen)  and 
in  England,  and  in  1649  he  was  commissioned  by  the 
Swedish  ambassador  at  the  French  court  to  go  to  Rome  in 
quest  of  certain  papers  which  had  been  lost,  and  which 
Queen  Christina  wished  to  recover.  In  this  mission -he 
was  unsuccessful,  but  while  in  Italy  he  became  acquainted 
with  four  Abyssinians,  from  whom  he  acquired  his  know 
ledge  (at  that  time  unique)  of  Ethiopia  In  1652  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Gotha ; 
in  this  he  continued  (acting  also  for  some  time  as  tutor 
to  the  young  princes)  until  1678,  when  he  retired  to 
Frankfort- on-the-Main.  At  the  conferences  held  there  in 
1681  and  1682  he  held  a  commission  to  act  for  the  dukes 
of  Saxony.  In  1683  he  visited  England  to  promote  a 
cherished  scheme  for  establishing  trade  with  Abyssinia, 
but  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful,  chiefly  through  the 
bigotry  of  the  authorities  of  the  Coptic  Church.  Return 
ing  to  Frankfort  in  1684,  he  gave  himself  wholly  to  literary 
work,  which  he  continued  almost  to  his  death  on  April  8, 
1704.  In  1690  he  had  the  honour  to  be  appointed 
president  of  the  "  Collegium  Imperiale  Historicum." 

His  works,  of  which  a  complete  list  will  be  found  in  Chauffepie's 
T>ictionnaire,  include  Historia  Ethiopica  (fol.  1681),  with  Commcn- 
tariiis  ad  Hist.  Eth.  (1691),  and  Appendix  (1693)  ;  Grammatica 
A mharicse  Linguas,  quie  vernacula  est  Habcssinorum,  1698  ;  Lexicon 
Amfutrico-Latinum,  1698  ;  Lexicon  Ethiopico-Latinum,  of  which 
the  first  edition  was  published  in  London  in  1661,  but  with  many 
inaccuracies  for  which  Ludolf  refused  responsibility  (a  second 
edition  appeared  at  Frankfort  in  1699) ;  Grammatica  Lingux, 
Ethiopicse,  (London,  1661  ;  Frankfort,  1702).  Ludolf  holds  a  very 
high  place  among  the  older  Orientalists,  and  his  works  on  Ethiopic 
in  particular  continued  to  be  the  standard  text-books  till  they  were 
superseded  by  those  of  Dillmann. 

LUDWIGSBURG,  the  second  royal  residence  of  Wiirt- 
emberg,  is  situated  9  miles  to  the  north  of  Stuttgart  and 
1^  miles  from  the  Neckar.  It  was  laid  out  at  the  begin 
ning  of  last  century  by  Duke  Eberhard  Ludwig  as  a  rival 
to  Stuttgart,  and  was  greatly  enlarged  by  Duke  Charles, 
who  resided  there  from  1764  to  1785.  Constructed  as  the 
adjunct  of  a  palace,  the  town  bears  the  impress  of  its 
artificial  origin,  and  its  straight  streets  and  spacious 
squares  have  a  dull  and  lifeless  appearance.  Its  main 
importance  now  consists  in  its  being  the  chief  military 
depot  of  Wiirtemberg,  as  which  it  contains  extensive 
barracks,  a  cannon  foundry,  an  arsenal,  and  a  military 
academy.  The  royal  palace,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
;n  Germany,  stands  in  a  beautiful  park,  and  contains  a 
portrait-gallery  and  the  burial  vault  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Wiirtemberg.  Among  the  other  prominent  buildings  are 
four  churches  and  several  educational  and  charitable  insti 
tutions.  Ludwigsburg  also  carries  on  manufactures  of 
organs,  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  japanned  tin-wares, 
picture  frames,  and  chicory.  In  1880  it  contained  16,100 
inhabitants,  about  one-fourth  of  whom  belonged  to  the 


GO 


L  U  D  — L  U  G 


garrison.  David  Strauss,  author  of  tlie  Life  of  Jesus,  was 
a  native  of  Ludvrigsburg.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  beautiful 
royal  chateau  of  Monrepos,  connected  with  the  park  of 
Ludwigsburg  by  a  fine  avenue  of  limes. 

LUDWIGSHAFEN.     See  MANNHEIM. 

LUGANO,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  which  divides  with 
Locarno  and  Bellinzona  the  first  rank  in  the  canton  of 
Tessin  (Ticino).  It  stands  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  of 
the  same  name,  on  a  narrow  strip  of  Swiss  territory  which 
projects  into  Lombardy  and  is  everywhere  close  to  the 
Italian  frontier.  The  prosperity  of  the  town  is  due  to  its 
position  on  the  main  line  of  land  communication  between 
Milan  and  the  pass  of  the  St  Gotthard,  and  the  facility  of 
intercourse  by  land  and  water,  whether  for  legitimate  or 
contraband  trade,  between  this  outlying  fragment  of 
Switzerland  and  the  rich  region  that  surrounds  it.  The 
buildings  are  not  remarkable,  but  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  degli  Angioli  contains  several  important  pictures  by 
Luini,  a  native  of  the  adjoining  district.  The  monastery 
to  which  the  church  formerly  belonged  is  now  converted 
into  a  large  hotel.  During  the  struggle  of  the  people  of 
northern  Italy  to  expel  the  Austrians  from  Lombardy, 
between  the  years  1848  and  1866,  Lugano  served  as  head 
quarters  for  Mazzini  and  his  followers.  Books  and  tracts 
intended  for  circulation  throughout  Italy  were  produced 
there,  and  at  the  neighbouring  village  of  Capolago,  on  a 
large  scale,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Austrian  police  to  check 
their  circulatian  were  completely  powerless.  The  popula 
tion  is  Italian  in  character  and  features,  and  the  Italian 
tongue  is  exclusively  spoken.  On  the  quay  is  a  statue  of 
Tell  by  Vela,  and  there  are  other  works  by  the  same 
eminent  sculptor,  a  native  of  the  canton,  in  private 
grounds  near  the  town.  About  2  miles  distant,  and  nearly 
due  south,  a  steep  hill — called  Monte  Salvatore — rises 
more  than  2000  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  lake,  and 
commands  a  fine  panoramic  view,  limited  in  some  direc 
tions  by  the  higher  mountains  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
1  ike,  but  extending  in  one  direction  to  Monte  Rosa,  and  in 
another  to  the  cathedral  of  Milan. 

LUGAN"0,  LAKE  OF  (sometimes  called  Lago  Ceresio 
by  the  Italians,  from  the  Roman  name  Lams  Ceresius), 
situated  partly  in  Lombardy  and  partly  in  the  Swiss  canton 
Tessin  or  Ticino,  takes  its  ordinary  name  from  the  town 
of  Lugano,  the  only  considerable  place  on  its  banks.  Its 
form  is  very  irregular,  and  has  been  compared  to  a  sickle, 
a  fish-hook,  and  various  other  objects.  It  lies  altogether 
amidst  the  outer  ranges  of  the  Alps  that  divide  the  basin 
of  the  Ticino  from  that  of  the  Adda,  where  the  calcareous 
strata  have  been  disturbed  by  the  intrusion  of  porphyry 
and  other  igneous  rocks.  It  is  not  connected  with  any 
considerable  valley,  but  is  fed  by  numerous  torrents  in 
various  directions  issuing  from  short  glens  in  the  sur 
rounding  mountains,  and  is  drained  by  the  Tresa,  an 
unimportant  stream  that  flows  westward  into  the  Lago 
Maggiore.  The  surface  of  the  lake  is  889  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  form  of  its  bed  seems  to  be  very  irregular.  In 
some  parts  soundings  of  more  than  1000  feet  have  been 
taken,  while  in  one  place  the  lake  is  so  shallow  that  a 
causeway  half  a  mile  in  length,  supporting  the  road  and 
the  railway,  has  been  carried  from  shore  to  shore.  The 
scenery  is  of  a  varied  character :  in  great  part,  and  especi 
ally  in  the  north-east  arm  extending  from  Lugano  to  the 
Lombard  village  of  Forlezza,  the  lake  is  enclosed  between 
mountains  that  rise  steeply  to  a  height  of  some  2000  feet 
from  the  water's  edge,  while  on  its  southern  and  western 
branches  it  is  encompassed  by  gently  swelling  hills  rich 
with  the  luxuriance  of  Italian  vegetation. 

LUGANSK,  a  town  of  Eussia,  in  the  government  of 
Ekaterinoshff,  district  of  Slavianoserbsk,  300  miles  to  the 
eastward  of  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  connected  by  a 


branch  with  the  railway  between  Kharkoff  and  Azoff,  as 
well  as  with  other  towns  and  iron-works  of  the  Donetz 
coal-mines  district.  It  stands  on  the  small  river  Lugan,  10 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  northern  Donetz,  in  the 
Lugan  mine  district,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  town.  This 
district,  which  comprises  the  important  coal-mines  of  Lisi- 
tchansk  and  the  anthracite  mines  of  Gorodische,  occupies 
an  area  of  about  110,000  acres  on  the  banks  of  the 
Donetz  river,  and  has  a  population  of  more  than 
15,000.  Although  it  is  mentioned  in  Russian  history 
as  early  as  the  16th  century,  and  coal  was  discovered 
in  it  at  the  time  of  Peter  I.,  it  was  not  until  1795 
that  an  Englishman,  Gascoyne  or  Gaskoin,  established 
its  first  iron-work  for  supplying  the  Black  Sea  fleet  and 
the  southern  fortresses  with  guns  and  shot.  This  proved 
a  failure,  owing  to  the  great  distance  from  the  sea,  and 
the  manufacture  of  supplies  for  the  navy  was  suspended  ; 
but  during  the  Crimean  war  the  iron-works  of  Lugan  again 
largely  produced  shot,  shell,  and  gun-carriages.  Since 
1864  agricultural  implements,  steam-engines,  and  the 
various  machinery  required  for  beetroot  sugar-works,  dis 
tilleries,  <fcc.,  have  been  the  chief  manufactures.  The  Lugau 
works,  which  employ  about  1200  men,  are  the  chief  centre 
for  smelting  the  ores  of  the  neighbouring  iron-mines.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  the  mining  authorities  for  the  district, 
and  has  a  first-class  meteorological  and  magnetic  observa 
tory.  The  11,000  inhabitants  of  Lugansk  also  carry  on  a 
very  active  trade  in  cattle,  tallow,  wools,  skins,  linseed, 
\T ine,  corn,  and  manufactured  wares.  The  weekly  fairs  are 
much  frequented.  There  are  also  in  the  town  many  tallow- 
melting  works,  and  the  smith  trade  is  largely  carried  on. 

LUGO,  a  maritime  province  of  Spain,  one  of  the  four 
into  which  Galicia  has  since  1833  been  divided,  is  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  Oviedo  and  Leon,  on  the  S.  by  Orense,  on 
the  W.  by  Pontevedra  and  Coruna,  and  on  the  N.  by  the 
Atlantic.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
98  miles,  its  breadth  58,  and  the  area  3787  square  miles. 
The  coast,  which  extends  for  about  40  miles  from  the 
estuary  of  Rivadeo  to  Cape  Yares,  is  extremely  rugged 
and  inaccessible,  and  few  of  the  inlets  that  exist,  except 
those  of  Rivadeo  and  Vivero,  admit  vessels  of  any  size. 
The  province,  especially  in  the  north  and  east,  is  moun 
tainous  in  its  character,  being  traversed  by  the  great 
Cantabrian  chain  and  its  offshoots ;  the  sierra  by  which  it 
is  separated  from  Leon  attains  in  some  places  a  height  of 
6000  feet.  A  large  part  of  the  area  is  drained  by  the- 
Mifio,  which  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  de 
Meira,  and  follows  a  southerly  direction  until  it  is  joined 
by  the  Sil ;  the  latter  for  a  considerable  distance  forms  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  province.  Of  the  rivers  of  the 
northern  versant  the  most  important  are  the  Navia  (which 
has  its  lower  course  through  Oviedo),  the  Eo  (for  some 
distance  the  boundary  between  the  two  provinces),  the 
Masma,  the  Oro,  and  the  Landrobe.  The  Eume,  one  of 
the  rivers  of  Coruna,  and  the  Ulla,  which  separates  that 
province  from  Pontevedra,  both  have  their  rise  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Lugo.  Some  of  the  northern  valleys  even, 
in  their  lower  portions,  are  fertile,  and  yield  not  only  com 
but  fruit  and  wine,  but  the  principal  agricultural  wealth  is 
on  the  Mino  and  Sil,  where  rye,  maize,  wheat,  legumes  of 
various  kinds,  flax,  hemp,  and  a  little  silk  are  produced. 
The  hills  are  comparatively  well  wooded.  Iron  is  found 
at  Caurel  and  Incio,  antimony  at  Castroverde  and 
Cervantes,  argentiferous  lead  at  Iliotorto ;  and  there  a;e 
quarries  of  granite,  marble,  and  various  kinds  of  slate  and 
building  stone.  Linen  and  woollen  cloths  are  manufactured, 
but  to  an  insignificant  extent,  and  the  trade  of  the  province 
is  unimportant.  The  internal  communications  are  still 
very  imperfect.  There  is  only  one  railway,  that  connecting 
Lugo  with  Coruna ;  but  connexions  with  Leon  (Branuelas) 


L  U  G  —  L  U  I 


61 


and  with  Orense  are  in  contemplation.  The  total  popula 
tion  in  1877  was  410,387,  being  a  decrease  of  22,129  since 
1860.  There  are  ten  towns  with  a  population  over  10,000 
— Chantada,  Fonsagrada,  Lugo,  Mondonedo,  Monforte, 
Panton,  Sarria,  Savifiao,  Villalba,  and  Vivero. 

LUGO,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  stands  on  a 
small  hill  near  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  Mino,  at  a 
height  of  1930  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  60  miles 
south-west  from  Coruna,  and  353  north-west  from  Madrid, 
on  the  highway  between  these  two  cities.  With  the  former 
it  is  continuously  connected  by  rail.  The  form  of  the 
town,  which  is  nearly  quadrangular,  is  denned  by  a  massive 
Roman  wall,  from  30  to  40  feet  in  height  and  20  feet 
thick,  with  projecting  semicircular  towers  which,  prior  to 
the  civil  war  in  1809,  were  eighty-five  in  number;  it  now 
serves  as  a  promenade,  commanding  an  extensive  and 
delightful  prospect.  The  principal  public  places  are  the 
Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  a  spacious  arcaded  square,  the 
Plaza  de  San  Domingo,  the  Plaza  del  Hospital,  and  the 
busy  Plaza  del  Campo,  where  fairs  and  markets  are 
held.  The  most  important  of  the  public  buildings  is  the 
Gothic  cathedral  on  the  south  side  of  the  town  ;  it  dates 
from  the  12th  century,  but  was  modernized  in  the  18th, 
and  possesses  no  special  architectural  merit.  Other 
churches  are  those  of  the  Capuchins  and  that  of  San 
Domingo  ;  the  only  other  buildings  of  note  are  the  episcopal 
palace,  the  secondary  school,  the  hospital,  and  the  prison. 
The  principal  industries  are  tanning,  and  the  manufac 
ture  of  linen  cloth  and  of  cream  of  tartar ;  there  is  some 
trade  in  silk  wares.  About  a  mile  to  the  south  of  the 
town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mino,  are  the  famous  hot 
sulphur  baths  of  Lugo ;  the  bathing  house  dates  from 
1847.  The  population  of  the  ayuntamiento  in  1877  was 
18,909. 

Lugo  (Lucus  Augusti)  was  made  by  Augustus  the  scat  of  a  con- 
ventus  juridicus.  Its  sulphur  baths  were  even  then  well  known. 
It  suffered  greatly  in  the  5th  century,  during  the  Moorish  wars, 
and,  more  recently,  during  the  war  of  independence.  The  bishopric 
dates  from  a  very  early  period,  and  it  is  said  to  have  acquired 
metropolitan  rank  in  the  middle  of  the  6th  century ;  it  is  now 
suffragan  to  Santiago. 

LUGOS,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
trans-Tisian  county  of  Krass6,  is  situated  on  the  Temes, 
and  on  the  railway  from  Temesvar  to  Karansebes,  32  miles 
east-south-east  of  the  former,  in  45°  41'  N.  lat.,  21°  53'  E. 
long.  The  two  main  portions  of  the  town,  separated  by 
the  river,  and  named  respectively  Ne'met-  (German)  Lugos 
and  Roman-  (Roumanian)  Lugos,  are  connected  by  a  wooden 
bridge  312  feet  in  length.  Lugos  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
Catholic  (Roumanian)  bishopric,  of  royal  and  circuit  courts 
of  law,  and  of  the  usual  bureaus  of  a  county  administration. 
The  public  and  other  buildings  include  Greek  Orthodox, 
Greek  Catholic,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Lutheran  churches, 
a  synagogue,  a  royal  upper  gymnasium  (founded  in  1823), 
a  Minorite  convent,  an  episcopal  palace,  the  barracks,  and 
the  ruins  of  a  castle.  The  surrounding  country  is  moun 
tainous  and  well-wooded,  and  produces  large  quantities  of 
grapes  and  plums.  In  1880  the  population  was  11,287, 
of  whom  3476,  chiefly  Germans,  were  in  Nemet-Lugos, 
and  7811,  Roumanians,  with  a  few  Slavonians  and  Magyars, 
in  Roindn-Lugos. 

Lugos  was  once  a  strong  fortress  and  of  greater  relative  im 
portance  than  at  present.  During  the  16th  and  1 7th  centuries  it 
suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  At  the  close  of  the 
Hungarian  revolutionary  war  (August  1849)  it  was  the  last  resort  of 
Kossuth  and  several  other  leaders  of  the  national  cause  previous  to 
their  escape  to  Turkey. 

LUINT,  BERNARDINO,  the  most  celebrated  master  of  the 
Lombard  school  of  painting  founded  upon  the  style  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  born  at  Luino,  a  village  on  the 
Lago  Maggiore,  towards  1465.  He  himself  wrote  his 
name  as  "  Bernardin  Lovino,"  but  the  spelling  "  Luini "  is 


now  very  generally  adopted.  Few  facts  are  known  regard 
ing  the  life  of  this  illustrious  and  delightful  painter,  and 
it  is  only  since  a  comparatively  recent  date  that  he  has 
even  been  credited  with  the  production  of  his  own  works, 
and  with  the  fame  thereto  appertaining,  as  many  of  them 
had,  in  the  lapse  of  years  and  laxity  of  attribution,  got 
assigned  to  Leonardo.  It  appears  that  Luini  studied 
painting  at  Vercelli  under  Giovenone,  or  perhaps  under 
Lo  Scotto.  He  reached  Milan  either  after  the  departure 
of  Da  Vinci  in  1500,  or  shortly  before  that  event;  it  is 
thus  left  uncertain  whether  or  not  the  two  artists  had  any 
personal  acquaintance,  but  Luini  was  at  any  rate  in  the 
painting-school  established  in  Milan  by  the  great  Floren 
tine.  In  the  latter  works  of  Luini  a  certain  influence  from 
the  style  of  Raphael  is  superadded  to  that,  far  more  pro 
minent  and  fundamental,  from  the  style  of  Leonardo;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  show  that  he  ever  visited  Rome.  His 
two  sons  are  the  only  pupils  who  have  with  confidence  been 
assigned  to  him  ;  and  even  this  can  scarcely  be  true  of  the 
younger,  who  was  born  in  1530,  when  Bernardino  was 
well  advanced  in  years,  and  was  not  far  from  the  close  of 
his  career.  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  has  also  been  termed  his 
disciple.  One  of  the  sons,  Evangelista,  has  left  little 
which  can  now  be  identified ;  the  other,  Aurelio,  was 
accomplished  in  perspective  and  landscape  work.  There 
vras  likewise  a  brother  of  Bernardino,  named  Ambrogio, 
a  competent  painter.  Bernardino,  who  hardly  ever  left 
Lombardy,  had  some  merit  as  a  poet,  and  is  said  to 
have  composed  a  treatise  on  painting.  The  precise  date 
of  his  death  is  unknown ;  he  may  perhaps  have  survived 
till  about  1540.  A  serene,  contented,  and  happy  mind, 
naturally  expressing  itself  in  forms  of  grace  and  beauty, 
seems  stamped  upon  all  the  works  of  Luini.  The  same 
character  is  traceable  in  his  portrait,  painted  in  an  upper 
group  in  his  fresco  of  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns  in  the 
Ambrosian  library  in  Milan, — a  venerable  bearded  person 
age.  The  only  anecdote  which  has  been  preserved  of  him 
tells  a  similar  tale.  It  is  said  that  for  the  single  figures 
of  saints  in  the  church  at  Saronno  he  received  a  sum  of 
money  equal  to  22  francs  per  day,  along  with  wine,  bread, 
and  lodging ;  and  he  was  so  well  satisfied  with  this  re 
muneration  that,  in  completing  the  commission,  he  painted 
a  Nativity  for  nothing. 

Along  with  this  natural  sweetness  of  character,  a 
dignified  suavity  is  the  most  marked  characteristic  of 
Luini's  works.  They  are  constantly  beautiful,  with  a 
beauty  which  depends  at  least  as  much  upon  the  loving 
self-withdrawn  expression  as  upon  the  mere  refinement 
and  attractiveness  of  form.  This  quality  of  expression 
appears  in  all  Luini's  'productions,  whether  secular  or 
sacred,  and  imbues  the  latter  with  a  peculiarly  religious 
grace — not  ecclesiastical  unction,  but  the  devoutness  of  the 
heart.  His  heads,  while  extremely  like  those  painted  by 
Leonardo,  have  less  subtlety  and  involution  and  less  variety 
of  expression,  but  fully  as  much  amenity.  He  began 
indeed  with  a  somewhat  dry  style,  as  in  the  Pieta  in  the 
church  of  the  Passione ;  but  this  soon  developed  into  the 
quality  which  distinguishes  all  his  most  renowned  works ; 
although  his  execution,  especially  as  regards  modelling,  was 
never  absolutely  on  a  par  with  that  of  Leonardo.  Luini's 
paintings  do  not  exhibit  an  impetuous  style  of  execu 
tion,  and  certainly  riot  a  negligent  one ;  yet  it  appears  that 
he  was  in  fact  a  very  rapid  worker,  as  his  picture  of  the 
Crowning  with  Thorns,  painted  for  the  College  del  S. 
Sepolcro,  and  containing  a  large  number  of  figures,  is 
recorded  to  have  occupied  him  only  thirty-eight  days,  to 
which  an  assistant  added  eleven.  His  method  was  simple 
and  expeditious,  the  shadows  being  painted  with  the  pure 
colour  laid  on  thick,  while  the  lights  are  of  the  same  colour 
thinly  used,  and  mixed  with  a  little  white.  The  frescos 


L  U  K  — L  U  K 


exhibit  more  freedom  of  hand  than  the  oil  pictures;  aud 
they  are  on  the  whole  less  like  the  work  of  Da  Vinci, 
having  at  an  early  date  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  style 
of  Mantegna,  as  later  on  to  that  of  Raphael.  Luini's 
colouring  is  mostly  rich,  and  his  light  and  shade  forcible. 

Among  his  principal  works  the  following  are  to  be  mentioned. 
At  Saronno  are  frescos  painted  towards  1525,  representing  the  life 
of  the  Madonna — her  Marriage,  the  Presentation  of  the  Infant 
Saviour  in  the  Temple,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  other  inci 
dents.  His  own  portrait  appears  in  the  subject  of  the  youthful 
Jesus  with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple.  This  series — in  which  some 
comparatively  archaic  details  occur,  such  as  gilded  nimbuses — was 
partly  repeated  from  one  which  Luini  had  executed  towards  1520 
in  S.  Croce.  In  the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan,  are  frescos  from  the 
suppressed  church  of  La  Pace  and  the  Convent  della  Pelucca, — the 
former  treating  subjects  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  the  latter,  of 
a  classic  kind,  more  decorative  in  manner.  The  subject  of  girls 
playing  at  the  game  of  "hot-cockles,"  and  that  of  three  angels 
depositing  St  Catherine  in  her  sepulchre,  are  particularly  memor 
able,  each  of  them  a  work  of  perfect  charm  and  grace  in  its  way. 
In  the  Casa  Silva,  Milan,  are  frescos  from  Ovid's  Metamorphoses. 
The  Monastero  Maggiore  of  Milan  (or  church  of  S.  Maurizio)  is 
a  noble  treasure-house  of  Luini's  art, — including  a  large  Cruci 
fixion,  with  about  one  hundred  and  forty  figures  ;  Christ  Bound  to 
the  Column,  between  figures  of  Saints  Catherine  and  Stephen,  and 
the  founder  of  the  chapel  kneeling  before  Catherine  ;  the  Martyr 
dom  of  this  Saint;  the  Entombment  of  Christ ;  and  a  large  number 
of  other  subjects.  In  the  Ambrosian  library  is  the  fresco  (already 
mentioned),  covering  one  entire  wall  of  the  Sala  della  S.  Corona, 
of  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns,  with  two  executioners,  and  on 
each  side  six  members  of  a  confraternity ;  in  the  same  building  the 
Infant  Baptist  Playing  with  a  Lamb  ;  in  the  Brera,  the  Virgin 
Enthroned,  with  Saints,  dated  1521  ;  in  the  Louvre,  the  Daughter 
of  Herodias  receiving  the  Head  of  the  Baptist  ;  in  the  Esterhazy 
Gallery,  Vienna,  the  Virgin  between  Saints  Catherine  and  Barbara; 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  Christ  Disputing  with  the 
Doctors.  Many  or  most  of  these  gallery  pictures  used  to  pass  for 
the  handiwork  of  Da  Vinci.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  highly 
celebrated  Vanity  and  Modesty  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  Rome, 
which  also  may  nevertheless  in  all  probability  be  assigned  to 
Luini.  Another  singularly  beautiful  picture  by  him,  which  seems 
to  pass  almost  entirely  unobserved  by  tourists  and  by  writers,  is  in 
the  Royal  Palace  in  Milan — a  large  composition  of  Women  Bathing. 
That  Luini  was  also  pre-eminent  as  a  decorative  artist  is  shown  by 
his  works  in  the  Certosa  of  Pavia. 

LUKE,  whose  name  is  traditionally  attached  to  the 
Third  Gospel,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  com 
panions  of  Paul,  being  mentioned  as  such  in  Col.  iv.  14, 
Philem.  24,  and  2  Tim.  iv.  11  ;  even  if,  as  some  critics 
suppose,  these  epistles  were  not  written  by  Paul  himself,  they 
are  at  any  rate  likely  to  have  preserved  the  local  colouring. 
Assuming,  as  is  probable,  that  the  same  person  is  intended 
in  all  three  passages,  we  gather  (1)  that  Luke  was  not  a 
born  Jew,  since  in  Col.  iv.  11,  "those  who  are  of  the 
circumcision "  appear  to  be  separated  from  those,  among 
whom  is  Luke,  who  are  mentioned  afterwards  (but  there 
is  nothing  to  determine  the  question,  which  has  since  been 
raised,  whether  he  had  been  a  Jewish  proselyte  or  a  Gen 
tile),  and  (2)  that  he  was  a  physician.  There  was  an  early 
belief,  first  mentioned  by  Irenseus,  that  he  is  spoken  of, 
though  not  mentioned  by  name,  in  2  Cor.  viii.  18,  as 
"  the  brother  whose  praise  is  in  the  gospel  throughout  all 
the  churches  ";  and  the  subscription  of  that  epistle  in  some 
MSS.,  and  in  the  Peschito  and  other  versions,  embodies 
this  belief.  Of  his  birth  and  country  nothing  is  positively 
known  ;  but  it  is  a  possible  inference  from  his  name  Lucas, 
which  is  a  contraction  of  Lucanus  (the  full  form  occurs  in 
some  early  MSS.  of  the  Itala),  that  he  was  of  Italian 
(Lucanian)  descent. 

From  the  time  of  Irenseus,  whose  testimony  is  soon 
followed  by  that  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and 
Origen,  this  companion  of  Paul  has  generally  been  con 
sidered  to  be  the  author  of  the  third  canonical  Gospel  and 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  but  no  other  facts  are 
mentioned  by  early  writers  as  to  his  personal  history, 
except  such  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  writings  which 
are  attributed  to  him.  Tertullian,  for  example,  speaks  of 


him  as  "  non  apostolus  sed  apostolicus,"  and  as  "  posterioris 
apostolisectator"(/lc?y.  Marcion.,  4,  2)  ;  aud  the  Muraturian 
fragment  says  that  he  had  not  seen  the  Lord  in  the  flesh. 
The  most  important  of  these  biographical  inferences  ars 
those  which  were  made  by  Eusebius,  who,  translating,  or 
mistranslating,  TraprjKoXovOrjKOTi  Tracri,  in  the  preface  to 
the  Gospel,  by  "having  accompanied  all,"  i.e.,  the 
"  eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word,"  infers  that  Luke 
was  a  companion  not  of  Paul  only  but  also  of  the  other 
apostles,  and,  probably  referring  to  Acts  xiii.  1,  says  that 
he  was  "  one  of  those  from  Antioch."1  These  inferences  of 
Eusebius  are  further  elaborated  by  Jerome,  who  adds, 
without  quoting  any  authority,  that  he  wrote  the  Gospel  in 
Achaia  or  Boeotia  (many  MSS.  have  Bithynia),  and  the 
Acts  at  Rome.2 

Those  who  a-ccept  this  tradition  of  his  having  been  the 
author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  usually  infer  from  the 
sections  of  that  work  in  which  the  pronoun  "  we  "  is 
employed  that  he  accompanied  Paul  on  part  of  his 
second  and  third  missionary  journeys,  and  also  on  his 
voyage  to  Rome.  The  first  of  these  sections  begins  with 
the  apostle's  determination  to  go  into  Macedonia,  and  ends 
when  he  has  left  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  10-40) ;  the  second 
begins  when  the  apostle  returns  to  Philippi,  and  ends  with 
his  arrival  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  6-xxi.  18) ;  the  third 
begins  with  his  sailing  from  Csesarea,  and  ends  with  his 
arrival  at  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16).  Even  some 
of  those  who  assign  the  greater  part  of  the  book  to  a  much 
later  date  think  that  these  sections  may  be  extracts  from 
an  original  diary  of  a  companion  of  Paul,  and  that  this 
companion  may  have  been  Luke.  Others,  however,  think 
it  improbable  that  Luke,  without  being  specially  mentioned 
either  in  them  or  elsewhere,  should  have  accompanied 
Paul  on  his  voyage  to  Rome,  and  assign  these  sections  to 
Timothy,  or  Titus,  or  Silas  (some  have  added  the  very 
improbable  conjecture  that  Luke  and  Silas  are  the  same 
person). 

The  other  biographical  details  which  are  found  in  patristic  litera 
ture,  and  which  are  not  inferences  from  the  New  Testament,  rest 
upon  no  certain  evidence,  and  are  frequently  at  variance  not  only 
with  one  another  but  also  with  earlier  documents.  It  is  sometimes 
stated  that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples ;  this  statement  is 
found  in  Epiphanius  (Hsercs.,  li.  11),  in  pseudo-Origen  (De  recta  in 
Deum  fide,  ed.  De  la  Rue,  vol.  i.  p.  806),  in  Gregory  the  Great 
(Aforal.  i.  1),  and  elsewhere  ;  but  it  is  inconsistent,  not  only  with 
Tertullian  and  the  Muratorian  fragment,  but  also  with  the  clear  in 
ference  from  the  preface  to  the  Gospel  that  its  author  was  not  him 
self  an  eyewitness  of  what  he  narrates.  It  is  also  stated  that  he 
was  one  of  the  two  disciples  who  went  to  Emmaus  (S.  Greg.  Magn., 
Moral,  i.  1;  Paul.  Diacon. ,  Homil.  59  in  Natali  S.  -Lucie  ;  and 
others);  but  this  statement  is  discredited  by  the  same  facts  as  the 
preceding.  Like  all  the  other  disciples  whose  names  are  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  he  is  said  to  have  gone  forth  as  a  preacher 
of  the  gospel  ;  but  statements  vary  widely  as  to  the  place  in  which 
he  preached  :  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  says  Achaia  ;  Epiphauius  suys 
Dalmatia,  Gaul,  Italy,  and  Macedonia  ;  CEcumenius  says  Al'rica  ; 
later  legends  mention  his  having  been  at  Enns  in  Austria  (Hansiz, 
Germ.  Sacra,  vol.  i.  p.  15).  And  also,  like  most  of  the  other 
early  disciples,  he  is  said  not  only  to  have  preached  the  gospel 
but  also  to  have  suffered  death  for  its  sake.  Gaudentius  of 
Brescia  says  that  this  occurred  at  Patra  in  Achaia,  and  Nice- 
phorus  specifies  as  the  manner  of  his  martyrdom  that  he  was 
hung  on  an  olive  tree.  But  elsewhere  it  is  stated  or  implied 
that  he  died  an  ordinary  death,  either  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia 
(Martyrol.  Basil.},  or  in  Bithynia  (Paulus  Diaconus,  Isidore 
of  Seville,  and  the  Martyrologies  of  Ado  and  Usuardi).  Most 
traditions  agree  in  stating  that  his  body  was  transl'ened  by  Con- 
stantius  to  Constantinople  ("Chron.  Hieron.,"  ap.  Mai,  J\'ov. 
Script.  Coll  ;  Prosper  Aquitanus,  Paulus  Diaconus,  Nicephorus, 
and  others),  but  its  place  of  burial  seems  to  have  been  for 
gotten,  and  Proco]iius(Zte  sedif.  Justin.,  i.  4)  mentions  that  it  was 
discovered  in  Justinian's  time  in  digging  the  foundations  of  a  new 

1  Some  have  thought  that,  like  the  persons  who  are  mentioned  by 
Origen,  Comm.   in  Rom.,   chap.   x.   (vol.   iv.   p.    686,  ed.  I>e  la  Rue), 
Eusebius  here  confuses  the  two  names  Lucas  and  Lucius. 

2  De  Viris  lllustr,,  chap.  vii. ;  Comm.  in  Matth.,  pref. ,  vol.  vii. 
p.  T 


L  U  K  —  L  U  L 


63 


church  ;  a  subsequent  tradition  stated  that  it  was  afterwards 
removed  to  Italy,  and  in  the  15th  century  Pius  II.  commissioned 
Cardinal  Bessarion  to  decide  upon  a  violent  controversy  between 
the  Minorite  monastery  of  S.  Job  at  Venice  and  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  S.  Giustina  at  Padua,  each  of  which  claimed  to  pos 
sess  the  perfect  relics  of  the  evangelist. 

A  late  tradition  represents  Luke  to  have  been  a  painter  as  well  as 
a  physician  ;  the  tradition  first  appears  in  a  doubtful  fragment  of  an 
author  of  doubtful  date,  Theodorus  Lector  (printed  in  H.  Valois's 
edition  of  Theodore t,  p.  618),  who  mentions  that  the  empress 
Eudocia  sent  to  Pulcheria,  from  Jerusalem  to  Constantinople,  a 
picture  of  the  Virgin  painted  by  Luke.  The  same  story  is 
mentioned  in  an  almost  certainly  spurious  oration  of  John  of 
Damascus  (Orat.  in  Constant.  Gopron.,  c.  6.,  vol.  i.  p.  618,  ed.  Le 
Quien)  ;  and  the  first  certain  authorities  for  the  tradition  are 
Symeon  Metaphrastes  and  the  Menologium  of  Basil  the  younger, 
both  of  which  belong  to  the  10th  century.  That  the  tradition  is 
not  of  much  earlier  growth  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  if  it  had  ex 
isted,  it  could  not  fail  to  have  been  largely  used  in  the  iconoclastic 
controversy. 

The  martyrologies  and  calendars  for  the  most  part  agree  in  fixing 
Luke's  festival  on  October  18;  but  a  doubt  is  expressed  whether  that 
day  should  be  regarded  as  the  anniversary  of  his  birth  or  of  the 
translation  of  his  remains  to  Constantinople. 

In  Christian  art  he  is  usually  symbolized  by  an  ox  (with  reference 
to  Ezekiel  i.  10,  Revelation  iv.  7),  on  the  significance  of  which 
symbol  various  statements  were  made  by  both  Eastern  and  Western 
writers  (some  of  them  will  be  found  quoted  by  Ciampini,  Vet. 
Monum.,  vol.  i.  192).  (E.  HA.) 

LUKE,  GOSPEL  OF.     See  GOSPELS. 

LUKOW,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  in  the  province  of 
Siedlce,  60  miles  by  rail  to  the  west  of  Brest-Litovsky. 
Owing  to  its  situation  on  the  railway  and  in  the  centre  of 
a  rich  district,  it  is  rapidly  developing.  The  population  is 
11,050. 

LUKOYANOFF,  a  district  town  in  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  108  miles  south-south-east 
of  the  chief  town  of  the  government,  on  the  highway  to 
Saratoff,  at  the  sources  of  the  Tesha  river,  tributary  of 
the  Oka.  It  is  situated  in  a  district  where  agriculture  is 
carried  on  to  a  large  extent,  corn  being  sold  to  distilleries, 
and  hemp  exported,  while  the  extensive  forests  furnish 
materials  for  the  production  of  wooden  wares.  Wooden 
spoons,  buckets,  sledges,  carts,  implements  for  linen  weaving, 
are  made  in  large  quantities  by  the  peasants  of  the  neigh 
bouring  villages,  and  exported  to  the  steppe  provinces  of 
southern  Russia  ;  and  there  is  also  considerable  trade  in 
timber,  felts,  fishing  nets,  nails,  <fec.  Population  9600. 

LULLY,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  (1633-1687),  was  born  in 
Florence,  and  joined  in  1650,  as  a  violinist,  the  orchestra  of 
the  French  court.  Though  friendless  and  in  a  foreign 
country,  his  genius  soon  opened  for  him  a  road  to  honours 
and  wealth.  He  was  appointed  director  of  music  to  King 
Louis  XIV.,  and  director  uf  the  Paris  opera.  The  influence 
of  his  music  was  so  great  as  to  produce  a  radical  revolu 
tion  in  the  style  of  the  dances  of  the  court  itself.  Instead 
of  the  slow  and  stately  movements,  which  had  prevailed 
until  then,  he  introduced  lively  and  rhythmically  quick 
ballets.  Having  found  a  congenial  poet  in  Quinault, 
Lully  composed  twenty  operas,  which  met  with  a  most 
enthusiastic  reception  from  a  delighted  public.  He  effected 
important  improvements  in  the  composition  of  the 
orchestra,  into  which  he  introduced  several  new  instru 
ments.  Lully  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Moliere,  for  some 
of  whose  best  plays  he  composed  illustrative  music. 
His  Miserere,  written  for  the  funeral  of  the  minister 
Sequier,  is  a  splendid  work  of  genius ;  and  very  re 
markable  are  also  his  minor  sacred  compositions.  On 
his  death-bed  he  wrote  Bisogna  morire, peccatore.  Lully's 
right  to  be  numbered  among  the  most  original  and  th 
best  musicians  is  undoubted.  His  music  is  full  of  the 
most  charming  and  enthralling  forms  of  Italian  melody ; 
and  the  fact  of  its  being  even  now  performed,  after  the 
lapse  of  so  many  years,  is  proof  sufficient  of  its  inherent 
beauty  and  intrinsic  worth. 


LULLY,  RAYMOND  (1235-1315),  the  inventor  of  a 
Fantastic  system  of  logic  by  which  Mohammedans  should  be 
onverted  to  Christianity,  was  born  at  Palma,  in  the  island 
of  Majorca,  in  1235.  His  father  had  been  born  at 
Barcelona,  and  belonged  to  a  distinguished  Catalonian 
family ;  but  for  his  services  in  helping  to  recover  the 
Balearic  islands  from  the  Saracens  he  was  rewarded  with 
a  gift  of  land  in  the  conquered  territory,  and  the  paternal 
estates  descended  to  his  enthusiastically-minded  son.  The 
younger  Lully,  however,  showed  at  first  but  little  of  the 
peculative  tendencies  which  he  afterwards  developed,  and 
his  early  years  were  spent  in  the  gaiety  and  even  profligacy 
of  a  courtier  in  the  service  of  James  II.,  of  Aragon,  who 
appointed  him  grand  seneschal  of  the  isle.  He  married, 
but  notwithstanding  sought  the  reputation  of  a  gal 
lant,  and  was  mixed  up  in  more  than  one  intrigue. 
Something,  however,  of  the  nature  of  a  cancer,  which 
attacked  one  of  the  objects  of  his  passion,  Sigriora 
Ambrosia, — such  is  the  way  in  which  we  are  asked  to 
account  for  his  "conversion," — affected  him  so  deeply  that 
he  abandoned  in  his  thirty-second  year  his  licentious  life, 
and,  having  distributed  the  greater  portion  of  his  goods  to  his 
family  and  the  poor,  he  withdrew  to  the  retirement  .of  a 
cell  on  Mount  Randa,  the  only  part  of  his  property  which 
he  had  reserved  for  himself.  Visions  of  a  crucified  Saviour 
and  like  phenomena  confirmed  him  in  his  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  Christ,  and  in  the  course  of  a  nine  years'  retreat 
on  Randa  he  came  to  regard  himself  as  commissioned  by 
God  to  refute  the  errors  of  Mohammed. 

This  missionary  call  became  henceforth  the  actuating 
principle  in  Lully's  life.  To  realize  it,  he  went  to  Paris  in 
his  fortieth  year,  to  prosecute  the  study  of  Latin  and  logic  ; 
and,  with  a  view  to  becoming  familiar  with  the  language 
of  the  infidels,  he  engaged  the  services  of  an  unlettered 
Arabian,  who,  finding  that  Lully  was  seeking  to  demolish 
the  faith  of  Islam,  attempted  to  assassinate  his  master. 
This  need  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language  of 
the  church's  adversary  became  itself  now  one  of  Lully's 
favourite  ideas.  In  1286  he  began  a  series  of  visits,  which 
he  made  to  Rome  to  induce  the  supreme  pontiff  to  found 
colleges  for  the  study  of  Arabic ;  but  the  small  success 
which  would  attend  his  efforts  in  this  direction  was  fore 
shadowed  by  the  death  of  Honorius  (then  pope)  before  he 
could  attain  an  audience  of  him.  Meanwhile  Lully  had 
become  discontented  with  the  methods  of  science  com 
monly  in  use,  and  had  set  himself  to  construct  his  "  great 
art,"  a  method  which,  by  mechanically  presenting  all  the 
predicates  which  could  attach  to  any  subject,  was  adapted 
to  answer  any  question  on  any  topic,  and  would  (its  author 
imagined)  by  the  cogency  of  its  inferences  necessarily  con 
vert  the  heathen.  His  natural  enthusiasm  respecting  the 
consequences  of  this  art  were  strengthened  by  revelations 
(as  he  judged  them)  of  the  co-operation  of  God  in  his 
designs,  and  he  gave  himself  up,  with  the  fervour  of  a 
divinely  appointed  missionary,  to  the  work  of  spreading  a 
knowledge  of  his  "great  art"  in  every  country.  He 
expounded  it  at  Paris  and  Montpellier  in  1286,  and  after 
a  visit  to  Pope  Nicholas,  to  solicit  his  help  in  founding 
linguistic  colleges,  and  a  serious  illness  at  Genoa,  brought 
on  apparently  by  an  isolated  fit  of  nervous  cowardice  in 
face  of  the  dangers  he  was  going  to  encounter,  he  sailed 
to  Tunis,  to  apply  his  new  method  to  the  errors  of 
Mohammedanism.  At  Tunis  his  attacks  upon  the  religion 
of  the  country  led  to  his  being  cast  into  prison,  and  it  was 
only  by  the  mediation  of  a  sheikh,  who  had  been 
impressed  by  the  earnestness  of  the  Christian  preacher, 
that  he  managed  to  escape  to  sea,  not  without  the  roughest 
treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  mob,  and  find  his  way  to 
Naples. 

A  new  influence  was  brought  to  bear  on  Lully's  life  at 


64 

Naples.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  alchemist 
Arnaud  de  Villeneuve,  and  acquired,  we  may  believe,  not 
only  that  skill  in  transmuting  metals  for  which  Lully 
himself  became  in  popular  tradition  famous,  but  imbibed 
also  something  of  that  spirit  which  brought  down  the 
censure  of  the  church  on  Villeneuve  for  maintaining  that 
medicine  and  charity  were  more  pleasing  to  God  than 
religious  services.  For  the  next  few  years  the  scene  of 
Lully's  labours  was  continually  changing.  He  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  interest  Pope  Boniface  in  the 
missionary  colleges  which  he  wished  to  see  established, 
and  similar  appeals  to  the  kings  of  France  and  Cyprus  met 
with  no  more  favourable  a  response.  From  Cyprus  Lully 
proceeded  (130G)  to  Bougiah  in  Africa,  and  repeated  the 
experiences  he  had  already  had  at  Tunis.  But,  though 
Mohammedanism  showed  little  disposition  to  welcome  the 
"  great  art  "  and  its  author,  the  European  world  had  mean 
while  begun  to  show  itself  more  favourably  disposed  towards 
Lully's  projects.  In  1297  he  had  received  at  MontpelHer, 
from  the  general  of  the  Franciscans,  letters  recommending 
him  to  the  superiors  of  all  Franciscan  houses  ;  and  in  1309 
his  "  art  "  was  publicly  approved  by  a  decree  of  the 
university  of  Paris.  Emboldened  perhaps  by  such  recog 
nition,  he  appeared  before  the  council  of  Vienne  in  southern 
France  in  1311,  and  petitioned  the  assembled  fathers  to 
reduce  the  different  and  often-contending  religious  orders 
to  one  great  order  serving  simply  under  Christ,  and  to 
meet  Mohammedanism  abroad  and  Averroism  at  home  by 
founding  colleges  for  the  study  of  Arabic.  Nothing 
would  seem  to  have  come  directly  of  these  petitions,  but 
we  may  perhaps  trace  their  result  in  some  chairs  of  Syriac 
and  Arabic  which  Clement  V.  instituted  at  Home,  and  in 
a  college  for  training  Franciscans  in  Oriental  languages 
which  James  of  Aragon  established  in  Majorca.  Lully 
was  now  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  but  his  zeal  in  com 
bating  the  foes  of  Christianity  did  not  abate.  He  sailed 
again  for  Africa,  and  received  the  martyr's  crown,  which 
would  seem  to  have  become  the  ambition  of  his  life.  At 
Bougiah  he  again  proclaimed  the  doctrines  of  the  church, 
and  his  preaching  raised  such  a  tumultuous  attack  that 
although  he  managed  to  get  on  board  a  Genoese  vessel,  he 
succumbed  during  the  voyage  to  the  injuries  he  had 
received,  and  died  in  sight  of  his  native  town  of  Palma 
(1315). 

During  liis  lifetime  Lully  composed  a  vast  number  of  treatises, 
some  of  which  have  never  yet  been  printed.  They  were  written 
partly  in  Latin,  partly  in  Catalonian,  Lully  deserving  mention  as 
one  of  the  first  in  medieval  times  who  tried  to  find  a  national  ex 
pression  for  philosophy  in  the  language  of  the  country.  Some  of 
these  works  may  be  described  as  dealing  with  apologetic  theology, 
e.g.,  the  Liber  de  Gentili  et  Tribus  Snpientibus,  in  which  a  Jew, 
Christian,  and  Saracen  explain  the  nature  of  their  faith,  or  the 
Disputatio  Fiddis  et  Infiddis  ;  others  again  relate  to  dogmatic 
divinity,  e.g.,  Liber  de  XIV".  Articulis,  De  Deo  et  Jcsu  Christo  ;  a 
third  class  refer  to  particular  questions  of  logic,  e.g. ,  De  Prima,  et 
Sccunda  lutentione,  Ars  Inveniendf Particularia  in  Univcrsalibus, 
DC  Venatione  Medii  ;  and  a  large  number  are  reputed  to  deal  with 
questions  of  alchemy.  But  the  "  Great  Art"  of  discovery  itself  is 
the  subject  of  most  01  Lully's  treatises.  So  it  is  with  the  Ars  Demon- 
strativa,  Compendium  Artis  Demonstrative,  Ars  Universah's,  Ars 
Invcntiva  Veritatis,  De  Auditu  Cabbalistico,  Ars  Magna  et  Ultima. 
And  even  when  Lully  is  engaged  with  such  treatises  as  the 
Irincipia  Medicines  or  Principia  Juris  it  is  to  the  universal  key 
of  knowledge  which  the  great  art  supplies  that  he  invariably  fulls 
back. 

The  reasonableness  and  demonstrability  of  Christianity  is  the 
assumption  underlying  the  exercise  of  this  great  method.  Nothing, 
Lully  holds,  interferes  more  with  the  spread  of  Christianity  than 
the  attempt  of  its  advocates  to  present  its  doctrines  as  undemon- 
stratcd  and  undemonstrable  truths  ;  the  very  difference  between 
Christianity  and  Antichrist  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  former  can 
prove  the  truth  of  its  beliefs  ;  and  the  glory  of  the  faith,  repeats 
the  Liber  Magnus  Contemplation/is,  is  not  that  it  maintains  the 
indemonstrable  hut  simply  the  supersensuous.  The  demonstration, 
however,  which  is  wanted  in  the  service  of  Christianity  is  not, 
Lully  thinks,  that  of  the  ordinary  logic  ;  we  require  a  method 


which  will  reason  not  only  from  effect  to  cause,  or  from  cause  to 
effect,  butper&quiparantiam,  and  show  that  contrary  attributes  can 
coexist  together  in  one  subject.  This  method^  however,  must  be 
real,  not  merely  formal  and  subjective  ;  it  must  deal  not  only  with 
the  second  intentions,  but  rather  with  the  first  intentions,  that  is, 
the  things  themselves.  The  great  art  in  fact  goes  heyond  logic  and 
metaphysic  ;  as  a  universal  topic  it  provides  a  universal  art  of 
discovery,  and  contains  the  formula;  to  which  every  demonstration 
in  every  science  can  be  reduced.  This  ars  investiyandi,  however, 
turns  out  to  be  not  so  much  a  key  to  all  possible  knowledge  as  a 
tabulation  of  the  different  points  of  view  from  which  propositions 
may  be  framed  about  various  objects — a  mechanical  contrivance  for 
finding  out  the  different  ways  in  which  categories  apply  to  things. 
Just,  Lully  thought,  as  by  knowing  the  typical  terminations  of  cases 
and  tenses  we  could  inflect  and  conjugate  any  word  whatever,  so  by 
a  knowledge  of  the  different  types  of  existence  and  their  possible 
combinations  as  portrayed  by  his  method  we  should  possess  impli 
citly  a  knowledge  of  the  whole  of  nature. 

The  great  art  accordingly  begins  by  laying  down  an  alphabet 
according  to  which  the  nine  letters  from  B  to  K  stand  for  the  dif 
ferent  kinds  of  substances  and  attributes.  Thus,  in  the  series  of 
substances,  B  stands  for  God,  C  angel,  D  heaven,  E  man,  and  so  on; 
in  the  series  of  absolute  attributes,  B  represents  goodness,  C  great 
ness,  D  duration ;  or  again,  in  the  nine  questions,  B  stands  for  Utrum, 
C  for  Quid,  D  for  De  quo.  The  manipulating  of  these  letters  in 
such  a  way  as  will  show  the  relationship  between  different  subjects 
and  predicates  constitutes  accordingly  the  peculiarity  of  the  "new 
art,"  this  manipulation  being  effected  by  the  help  of  certain  so-called 
"figures."  The  construction  of  these  figures  varies  somewhat  in 
different  parts  of  Lully's  writings,  but  their  general  character  is 
always  the  same.  Circles  and  other  mathematical  figures  divided 
into  sections  and  marked  by  Lully's  symbolical  letters  are  so 
arranged,  sometimes  with  the  help  of  different  colours,  as  to  show 
the  possible  combinations  of  which  the  letters  are  capable.  Thus 
for  example  one  figure  exhibits  the  possible  combination  of  the 
attributes  of  God,  another  the  possible  conditions  of  the  soul,  and 
so  on.  These  figures  are  fenced  about  by  various  definitions  and  rules, 
and  their  use  is  further  specified  by  various  "evacuations"  and 
"  multiplications"  which  show  us  how  to  exhaust  and  draw  out  all 
the  possible  combinations  and  sets  of  questions  which  the  terms 
under  consideration  can  admit.  When  so  "  multiplied,"  the  fourth 
figure  is,  Lully  himself  says,  that  by  which  other  sciences  can  be 
most  easily  and  rapidly  acquired ;  and  it  may  accordingly  be  taken 
as  no  unfair  specimen  of  Lully's  method.  This  fourth  figure  then 
is  simply  an  arrangement  of  three  concentric  circles  (made  of  tin  or 
pasteboard)  each  divided  into  nine  sections  B,C,D,  &c.,  and  so  con 
structed  that  while  the  upper  and  smaller  circle  remains  fixed,  the 
two  lower  and  outer  revolve  round  it.  Taking  then  the  letters  in 
the  sense  of  the  series  which  seems  most  fitted  for  the  subject  under 
discussion,  we  are  enabled  by  making  the  outer  circles  revolve  to 
find  out  the  possible  relationships  between  different  conceptions 
and  elucidate  the  agreement  or  disagreement  which  subsists  between 
them,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we  discover  the  intermediate  terms 
(in  the  middle  circle)  by  which  they  are  to  be  connected  or  discon 
nected. 

The  weakness  of  Lully's  art  is  the  weakness  of  every  system  which 
pretends,  as  Bacon's  also  did,  to  equalize  all  intellects,  and  provide 
a  method  which  will  produce  discovery  as  surely  as  compasses  will 
construct  a  circle.  But  it  would  be  unfair  to  say  that  Lully  sup 
posed  that  thinking  and  reasoning  could  be  reduced  to  a  mere 
rotation  of  pasteboard  circles.  The  real  value  of  his  art  lies  not  in 
being  an  a  priori  compendium  of  knowledge  but  a  method  of  in 
vestigation — a  tabulation  of  the  different  sides  from  which  a  ques 
tion  must  be  regarded,  and  in  embodying  the  ideal  which  science 
puts  before  herself  of  finally  bringing  all  conceptions  into  unity  and 
correlation.  It  is  easy,  with  the  Port-Eoyal  logic,  to  speak  of 
Lully's  art  as  merely  enabling  us  "to  talk  without  judgment  of 
that  which  we  do  not  know";  but  in  his  conception  of  scientific 
method  as  tending  to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  man,  in  his 
departure  from  the  school  logic  and  his  wish  for  a  real  interpre 
tation  of  nature,  in  his  conception  of  a  universal  method  and  his 
application  of  the  vernacular  languages  to  philosophy,  he  appears  as 
a  precursor  of  Bacon  himself.  And  in  his  assertion  of  the  place  of 
reason  in  religion,  in  his  demand  that  a  rational  Christianity  should 
be  presented  to  heathendom,  in  his  missionary  zeal  and  his  project  of 
linguistic  colleges,  Lully,  with  all  his  quixotic  character,  goes  far 
beyond  the  ideas  and  the  aspirations  of  the  century  in  which  he 
lived. 

A  few  of  Lully's  works  were  published  by  Zetzner  in  1598  and  frequently  re 
printed  ;  but  the  first  systematic  edition  was  begun  by  Salzinger  in  1721,  and 
after  Salzinger's  death  completed  in  1742,  This  edition  is  non  inally  in  10  vols., 
but  vols.  vii.  and  viii.  were  never  published.  In  addition  to  older  works,  such  as 
Perroquet  (lfiG7)  a.  d  Nic.  de  ITautevillc  (Ififi(i)  and  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (vol. 
xxiv.),  the  best  aecount  of  Lully's  life  is  to  be  found  in  an  arti  le  by  Dclecliize  in 
the  Revue  d.  cl.  Mondes  for  1840,  and  the  fullest  account  of  his  nu'tliod  in  Prantl, 
Gescliichte  d.  Logik,  iii.  145-177,  and  Krdmann,  Gritndrixs  d.  Gesch.  d.  Pliilosophif, 
i.  §  20(5.  The  philological  importance  of  Lully's  writings  is  brought  out  by 
A.  Hclffeiicli,  Raymond  Lull  und  die  Anfunye  d.  Catalonischen  Literatur.  Berlin, 
1658.  (E.  W.) 


L  II  M  —  L  U  N 


LUMBAGO,  a  term  in  medicine  applied  to  a  painful 
ailment  affecting  the  muscles  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back, 
generally  regarded  as  of  rheumatic  origin.  An  attack  of 
lumbago  may  occur  alone,  or  be  associated  with  rheumatism 
in  other  parts  of  the  body  at  the  time.  It  usually  comes 
on  by  a  seizure,  often  sudden,  of  pain  in  one  or  both  sides 
of  the  small  of  the  back,  of  a  severe  cutting  or  stabbing 
character,  greatly  aggravated  on  movement  of  the  body, 
especially  in  attempting  to  rise  from  the  recumbent  posture, 
and  also  in  the  acts  of  drawing  a  deep  breath,  coughing, 
or  sneezing.  So  intense  is  the  suffering  that  it  is  apt 
to  suggest  the  existence  of  inflammation  in  some  of  the 
neighbouring  internal  organs,  such  as  the  kidneys,  bowels, 
&c.,  but  the  absence  of  the  symptoms  specially  character 
istic  of  these  latter  complaints,  or  of  any  great  constitu 
tional  disturbance  beyond  the  pain,  renders  the  diagnosis 
a  matter  of  no  great  difficulty.  Lumbago  seems  to  be 
brought  on  by  exposure  to  cold  and  damp,  and  by  the 
other  exciting  causes  of  rheumatism.  Sometimes  it  follows 
a  strain  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins.  The  attack  is  in 
general  of  short  duration,  but  occasionally  it  continues  for 
a  long  time,  not  in  such  an  acute  form  as  at  first,  but 
rather  as  a  feeling  of  soreness  and  stiffness  on  movement. 
The  treatment  includes  that  for  rheumatic  affections  in 
general  (see  RHEUMATISM)  and  the  application  of  local 
remedies  to  allay  the  severe  pain.  Of  these  the  best  are 
hot  fomentations  with  turpentine  or  laudanum  applied  by 
means  of  flannel  or  spongio-piline  to  the  part ;  or  the  rub 
bing  in,  if  this  can  be  borne,  of  stimulating  liniments,  such 
as  thosa  of  opium,  belladonna,  chloroform,  aconite,  <fcc. 
The  old  and  homely  plan  of  counter-irritation  by  applying 
a  heated  iron  to  the  part  with  a  sheet  of  brown  paper 
interposed  is  often  beneficial  in  chronic  cases,  as  is  also,  on 
similar  principles,  Corrigan's  button  cautery.  The  sub 
cutaneous  injection  of  morphia  or  atropia  is  called  for 
when  the  attack  is  very  severe  and  prevents  sleep. 

LUMP-SUCKER,  or  LUMP-FISH  (Cydopterus  lumpus), 
a  marine  fish,  which  with  another  genus  (Liparis)  forms  a 
small  family  (Discoboli)  closely  allied  to  the  Gobies  (see 
GOBY).  Like  many  fishes  of  the  latter  family,  the  lump- 
suckers  have  the  ventral  fins  united  into  a  circular  concave 
disk,  which,  acting  as  a  sucker,  enables  them  to  attach  them 
selves  firmly  to  rocks  or  stone?.  The  body  of  the  lump- 
sucker  (properly  so  called)  is  short  and  thick,  with  a  thick 
and  scaleless  skin,  covered  with  rough  tubercles,  the  larger 
of  which  are  arranged  in  four  series  along  each  side  of  the 
body.  The  first  dorsal  fin  is  almost  entirely  concealed  by 
the  skin,  appearing  merely  as  a  lump  on  the  back.  The 
lump-sucker  inhabits  the  coasts  of  both  sides  of  the  North 
Atlantic ;  it  is  not  rare  on  the  British  coasts,  but  becomes 
more  common  farther  north.  It  is  so  sluggish  in  its 
habits  that  individuals  have  been  caught  with  sea-weed 
growing  on  their  backs.  In  the  spring  the  fish  approaches 
the  shores  to  spawn,  clearing  out  a  hollow  on  a  stony  bottom 
in  which  it  deposits  an  immense  quantity  of  pink-coloured 
ova.  Fishermen  assert  that  the  male  watches  the  spawn 
until  the  young  are  hatched,  a  statement  which  receives 
confirmation  from  the  fact  that  the  allied  gobies,  or  at  least 
some  of  them,  take  similar  care  of  their  progeny.  The 
vernacular  name,  "cock  and  hen  paddle,"  given  to  the 
1'imp-fish  on  some  parts  of  the  coast,  is  probably  expressive 
of  the  difference  between  the  two  sexes  in  their  outward 
appearance,  the  male  being  only  half  or  one-third  the  size 
of  the  female,  and  assuming  during  the  spawning  season  a 
bright  blue  coloration,  with  red  on  the  lower  parts.  This 
fish  is  generally  not  esteemed  as  food,  but  Faber  (Fisch. 
Inlands,  p.  53)  states  that  the  Icelanders  consider  the  flesh 
of  the  male  as  a  delicacy.1  Very  peculiar  is  the  structure 

1  The  "  cock-padle ''  was  formerly  esteemed  also  in  Scotland,  and 
figures  in  the  Antiquary,  chap.  xi. 


of  the  bones,  which  are  so  sofc,  and  contain  so  little 
inorganic  matter,  that  the  old  ichthyologists  placed  the 
lump-sucker  among  the  cartilaginous  fishes. 

LUND,  a  town  of  Sweden,  in  the  Ian  of  Malmohus,  lies 
at  a  distance  of  10  miles  by  rail  north-east  from  Malmo. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  university,  the  second  in 
Sweden,  founded  by  Charles  XI.  in  1666,  with  faculties 
of  philosophy,  law,  medicine,  and  theology  ;  the  number  of 
students  ranges  from  500  to  600.  The  librarycoutains  about 
100,000  volumes  and  2000  MSS.,  and  there  are  valuable 
collections  in  archaeology  and  natural  history.  Among  the 
more  distinguished  of  its  professors  may  be  mentioned  the 
names  of  Puffendorf  and  the  poet  Tegner.  Linnaeus  was 
one  of  its  alumni.  The  cathedral,  a  Byzantine  structure, 
dedicated  to  St  Lawrence,  and  said  to  be  on  the  whole  the 
finest  church  in  Scandinavia,  was  founded  about  the  middle 
of  the  llth  century,  and  consecrated  in  1145.  The  crypt 
under  the  transept  and  choir  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world.  The  town  has  little  else  of  interest  to  show.  The 
statue  of  Tegner  stands  in  the  Tegner's  Plats,  and  the 
house  in  which  he  lived  from  1813  to  1826  is  indicated 
by  a  stone  slab  with  an  inscription.  The  manufactures  of 
Lund  (woollen  cloth,  leather,  tobacco,  sugar,  &c.)  are  unim 
portant.  The  population  in  December  1878  was  13,611. 

Lund  (Lond'inum  Gothorum),  the  "  Lunda  at  Eyrarsundi"  of  the 
Eyil's  Saga,  was  in  Egil'sMime  (about  920  A.D. )  a  place  of  con 
siderable  importance  ;  one  gathers  that,  if  not  actually  a  seaport, 
it  was  at  least  nearer  the  Sound  then  than  at  present.  In  the 
middle  of  the  llth  century  it  was  made  a  bishopric,  and  in  1103  it 
was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  an  archiepiscopal  see,  the  arch 
bishop  receiving  primatial  rank  over  all  Scandinavia  in  1163.  The 
archbishop  of  Upsala  is  now  primate  of  Sweden,  Lund  since  1536 
having  been  reduced  to  the  rank  of  an  ordinary  bishopric,  and  lost 
its  quondam  title  of  "Metropolis  Danise." 

LUNEBUFiG,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hanover,  is  situated  near  the  foot  of 
a  small  hill  named  the  Kalkberg,  and  on  the  river  Ilmenau, 
14  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Elbe,  and  30  miles 
to  the  south-east  of  Hamburg.  Numerous  handsome 
mediaeval  buildings  testify  to  its  former  prosperity,  and 
part  of  the  old  town-wall  also  still  survives.  Of  its  four 
churches  three — those  of  St  John,  St  Nicholas,  and  St 
Michael — are  large  and  fine  Gothic  edifices  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries.  The  principal  secular  buildings  are  the 
town-house,  a  huge  pile  dating  from  the  13th  to  the  18th 
century,  the  old  palace,  and  the  convent  of  St  Michael, 
now  converted  into  a  school.  Liineburg  owes  its  import 
ance  chiefly  to  the  gypsum  and  lime  quarries  of  the 
Kalkberg,  which  afford  the  materials  for  its  cement  works, 
and  to  the  productive  salt-spring  at  its  base.  Hence  the 
ancient  saying,  which,  grouping  with  these  the  commercial 
facilities  afforded  by  the  bridge  over  the  Ilmenau,  ascribes 
the  prosperity  of  Liineburg  to  its  mons,  fans,  pons.  The 
industries  of  the  town  also  include  the  making  of  iron 
ware,  soda,  and  haircloth.  Population  in  1880,  19,045. 

Liineburg  existed  as  early  as  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  but  did  not 
become  of  any  importance  till  after  the  erection  of  a  convent  and  a 
castle  on  the  Kalkberg  in  the  10th  century.  The  decisive  event, 
however,  in  fixing  its  future  development  was  the  destruction,  in 
1189,  of  Bardewieck,  situated  on  the  Ilmenau  below  Liineburg,  and 
then  the  chief  commercial  town  in  North  Germany.  Liineburg 
inherited  its  trade,  and  subsequently  appears  as  one  of  the  leading 
towns  in  the  Hanseatic  League.  From  1267  to  1369  it  was  the 
capital  of  an  independent  principality  of  its  own  name,  and  it  was 
afterwards  frequently  involved  in  the  quarrels  of  the  Guelphic 
princes.  It  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity  in  the  15th  century, 
and  even  in  the  17th  was  the  depot  for  all  the  merchandise  ex 
ported  from  Saxony  and  Bohemia  to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  The 
German  war  of  liberation  in  1813  was  begun  by  an  engagement  with 
the  French  under  General  Morand  near  Liineburg.  Liineburg  gives 
its  name  to  the  Lu'ueburger  Haide  or  Liineburg  Heath,  an  im 
mense  tract  of  moorland  occupying  the  greater  part  of  eastern 
Hanover. 

Compare  Volger,  Fuhrer  durch  die  Sttjrlt  Limcburg  and  Urkundenbuch  der 
StaJt  Liineburg  ;  also  the  Alterthilmer  der  Stadt  Liineburg,  1S52-72 


L  U  N  — L  U  P 


LUNEVILLE,  the  chief  place  of  an  arrondissement  in 
the  department  of  Meurthe  and  Moselle,  France,  240  miles 
east  of  Paris  by  rail  on  the  line  to  Strasburg,  stands  in  the 
midst  of  meadows  between  the  Meurthe  and  the  Vezouze  a 
little  above  their  confluence.  It  is  a  handsome  town  regu 
larly  built.  The  chateau,  designed  early  in  the  18th  century 
by  the  royal  architect  Boffrand,  was  the  favourite  residence 
of  Duke  Leopold  of  Lorraine,  where  he  gathered  round 
him  the  academy  composed  of  eminent  men  of  the  district. 
It  is  npw  a  cavalry  barrack.  Luneville  has  always  been 
an  important  cavalry  station,  and  has  a  riding  school  where 
two  hundred  horsemen  can  exercise  at  the  same  time.  The 
church  of  St  Jacques,  with  its  two  towers,  dates  from  the 
same  period  as  the  chateau.  The  church  of  St  Maur, 
in  the  Byzantine  style,  is  but  thirty  years  old.  The  dis 
trict  round  Luneville  is  mainly  agricultural,  and  the  town 
has  a  fine  corn  exchange.  The  manufactures  include 
pottery,  embroideries,  gloves,  cotton  cloth,  and  cooking 
stoves.  There  are  starch  works  and  gypsum  kilns,  and  a 
considerable  trade  in  grain,  flour,  hops,  and  other  agricul 
tural  produce.  The  population  in  1876  was  16,041. 

The  name  of  Luneville  is  derived  from  an  ancient  cult  of  Diana. 
A  sacred  fountain  and  medals  with  the  effigy  of  this  goddess  have 
been  found  at  Leormont,  some  2  miles  east  of  the  town.  Luneville 
formed  part  of  Austrasia,  and  after  various  changes  fell  to  the  crown 
of  Lorraine.  A  walled  town  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  suffered  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  in  the  campaigns  of  Louis  XIV.  from  war 
and  its  consequences — plague  and  famine.  The  town  flourished 
again  under  Dukes  Leopold  and  Stanislas,  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  of  whom,  which  took  place  at  Luneville,  Lorraine  was  united 
to  France  (1766).  The  treaty  of  Luueville  between  France  and 
Austria  (1801)  confirmed  the  former  power  in  the  possession  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  town  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
emperor  Francis,  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  of  the  painter  Jean 
Girardet. 

LUPERCALIA,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
interesting  Roman  festivals.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to 
Evander,  or  to  Romulus  before  he  founded  the  city,  and 
its  ceremonial  is  in  many  respects  unique  in  Roman  ritual. 
In  front  of  the  Porta  Romana,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Palatine  hill,  close  to  the  Ficits  Raminalis  and  the  Casa 
Romuli,  was  the  cave  of  Lupercus ;  in  it,  according  to  the 
legend,  the  she-wolf  had  suckled  the  twins,  and  the  bronze 
wolf  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Capitol  was  placed 
in  it  in  296  B.C.  But  the  festival  itself,  which  was  held 
on  February  15th  under  the  direction  of  theflamen  dialis, 
contains  no  reference  to  the  Romulus  legend,  which  is 
probably  later  in  origin  (see  Mommsen  in  Hermes,  1881). 
The  celebrants,  who  were  called  Luperci,  offered  in  sacrifice 
goats  and  a  dog ;  the  flamen  dialis  himself  was  forbidden 
to  touch  either  kind  of  animal,  and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  Lupercal  sacrifice  is  older  than  the  prohibition. 
After  the  sacrifice  two  of  the  Luperci  were  led  to  the  altar, 
their  foreheads  were  touched  with  a  bloody  sword,  and  the 
blood  wiped  off  with  wool  dipped  in  milk  ;  then  the  ritual 
required  that  the  two  young  men  should  laugh.  The 
sacrificial  feast  followed,  after  which  the  Luperci  cut  thongs 
.from  the  skins  of  the  victims  and  ran  in  two  bands  round 
the  walls  of  the  old  Palatine  city,  striking  the  people  who 
crowded  near.  A  blow  from  the  thong  prevented,  sterility 
in  women.  These  thongs  were  called  Februa,  the  festival 
Februatio,  and  the  day  Dies  Februetus ;  hence  arose  the 
name  of  the  month  February,  the  last  of  the  old  Roman 
year.  The  nearest  analogy  in  the  Roman  religion  to  the 
Lupercalia  is  the  occasional  Amburbium,  in  which  the 
victims  were  led  round  the  walls  of  Rome  and  then 
sacrificed.  The  Lupercalia  was  associated  with  the  circuit 
of  the  Palatine  city,  which  had  been  a  city  long  before  the 
tseven-hilled  Rome,  and  the  line  of  the  old  Palatine  walls 
was  marked  with  stones  for  the  Luperci  to  run  round. 
Unger  has  proved  that  the  festival  was  originally  a  rite 
peculiar  to  the  tribe  of  the  Ramnes,  the  old  dwellers  on 


the  Palatine,  and  that  it  was  in  the  3d  century  B.C. 
widened  to  a  festival  of  the  whole  city.  It  is  probable  that 
then  the  whole  ceremonial  was  modified  ;  the  Luperci,  who 
were  originally  chosen  from  the  Ramnes  alone,  were  chosen 
from  the  whole  body  of  the  Equites,  the  people  assembled 
round  the  hill,  and  the  ceremony  of  scourging  to  avert 
sterility  was  added.  Originally  therefore  the  Luperci 
simply  encompassed  the  walls  as  the  victims  did  at  the 
Amburbium,  and  the  ceremonial  connected  with  the  two 
young  men  has  generally  been  taken  as  a  proof  that  they 
were  at  one  time  actually  sacrificed  after  being  led  round 
the  walls,  and  that  a  vicarious  sacrifice  was  afterwards 
substituted  for  the  ancient  human  offering.  The  Luper 
calia  was  therefore  a  ceremony  of  purification  performed 
for  the  walls  and  for  the  whole  of  the  old  Palatine  city, 
from  which  it  follows  that  it  was  dedicated  to  the  peculiar 
god  of  that  city.  In  early  time  the  name  of  the  god  was 
kept  strictly  secret,  as  it  was  unsafe  that  an  enemy 
should  know  it  and  be  able  to  invoke  him.  Hence  arise 
many  conflicting  statements  as  to  the  name.  In  later 
times,  when  the  bonds  of  early  religion  were  relaxed,  the 
name  became  known.  The  god  was,  as  Livy  relates, 
Inuus,  an  old  Italian  deity  known  chiefly  in  southern 
Etruria,  whtere  there  existed  two  towns  named  Ga^trum 
Inui.  He  was  a  form  of  the  supreme  heaven-god,  very 
like  Mars  in  character,  and  the  rites  with  which  his  anger 
was  averted  may  be  compared  with  those  of  Zeus  on 
Mount  Pelion  or  with  the  Maimacteria  in  Athens.  The 
Luperci  were  divided  into  two  collegia  called  Quintiliani  or 
Quinetiales  (the  form  is  doubtful,  see  Mommsen,  Rom. 
Forsch.,  i.  17)  and  Fabiani ;  at  the  head  of  each  was  a 
magister.  In  44  B.c.  a  third  collegium,  Juliani,  was  insti 
tuted  in  honour  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  first  magister  of  which 
was  M.  Antony. 

This  account  follows  in  almost  every  particular  that  of  Linger 
(Rhcin.  Mus.,  1881).  He  derives  Lupercus  from  lua  and  parco  in 
the  old  sense  of  restrain,  and  Inuus  from  a  root  seen  in  avis  inubra 
or  inebra,  avalv 0^0.1,  &c. ,  meaning  to  avert  or  prohibit,  and  sees  in 
the  festival  a  national  ceremony  of  the  Palatine  city,  not  with 
Marquardt  (Rom.  Staatsreno. ,  iii.  421)  a  widened  gentile  cultus  of 
the  Fabri  and  Quinctii  or  Quintilii. 

LUPINE,  Lupinus,  L.,  a  genus,  of  over  eighty  species,  of 
the  tribe  Genistese  of  the  order  Leguminosse.  Species  with 
digitate  leaves  range  along  the  west  side  of  America 
from  British  Columbia  to  Bolivia,  while  a  few  occur  in 
the  Mediterranean  regions.  A  few  others  with  entire 
leaves  are  found  in  South  Carolina,  the  Cape,  and  Cochin- 
China  (DC.,  Prod.,  ii.  p.  406  ;  Benth.  and  Hook.,  Gen. 
PL,  i.  480).  The  leaves  are  remarkable  for  "  sleep 
ing  "  in  three  different  ways.  From  being  in  the  form  of 
a  horizontal  star  by  day,  the  leaflets  either  fall  and  form  a 
hollow  cone  with  their  bases  upwards  (L.  pilosus),  or  rise 
and  the  cone  is  inverted  (L.  hiteus),  or  else  the  shorter 
leaflets  fall  and  the  longer  rise,  and  so  together  form  a 
vertical  star  (many  sp.) ;  the  object  in  every  case  being  to 
protect  the  surfaces  of  the  leaflets  from  radiation  (Darwin, 
Movements  of  PL,  p.  340).  The  flowers  are  of  the  usual 
"papilionaceous"  or  pea-like  form,  blue,  white,  purple,  or 
yellow,  in  long  terminal  spikes.  The  stamens  are  mona- 
delphous  and  bear  dimorphic  anthers.  The  species  of 
which  earliest  mention  is  made  is  probably  L.  Termis, 
Forsk.,  of  Egypt.  This  is  possibly  the  epe'/Sivtfos'of  Homer 
(II. ,  xiii.  589).  It  is  no  longer  found  in  Greece,  but  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  Egypt.  Its  seeds  are  eaten  by  the 
poor  after  being  steeped  in  water  to  remove  their  bitter 
ness  ;  the  stems  furnish  fuel  and  the  best  charcoal  for 
gunpowder  (Pick.,  Chron.  Hist,  of  PL,  183).  Two  other 
species  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  by  the  ancients, 
L.  sativus  (albus,  L.)  allied  to  L.  Termis,  and  L.  hirmtus, 
L.,  this  latter  only  about  Sparta  (Pick.,  I.e.,  p.  202) ;  L. 
anyustifolius,  L.,  was  a  corn-field  weed,  the  0ep//,os  ayptos 


L  U  R  — L  U  K 


67 


of  Dioscorides.  The  Ocp/j-os  ^/xepos  was  used  to  counteract 
the  effects  of  drink  (Atheu.,  55,  C.).  The  seeds  were  used 
as  money  on  the  stage  (Plaut.,  Pcen.,  3,  2,  20  •  Hoi:,  Ep., 
i.  7,  23).  L.  albus,  L.,  was  also  cultivated  as  a  field  lupine, 
the  L.  sativus  of  the  Romans,  referred  to  by  Cato,  7£.  /?., 
34,  2 ;  Virgil,  Georg.,  i.  75  ;  Pliny,  xviii.  36  ;  &c.  In 
1597  Gerard  (Herbal!,  p.  1042)  writes  :— "  There  be  diuers 
sortes  of  the  flat  Beane  called  Lupine,  some  of  the  garden, 
and  others  wild  " ;  and  he  figures  three  species,  L.  sativus 
(now  L.  albus,  L.),  L,  luteus,  L.,  and  L.  varius,  L.  Few 
species  are  in  cultivation  now,  but  the  varieties  are  very 
numerous  (see  Paxton's  Bot.  Diet.,  p.  345  ;  Hemsley's 
Hand,  of  Hardy  Trees,  &c.,  p.  115).  Of  species  now 
grown,  L.  albus,  L.,  is  still  extensively  cultivated  in  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  other  Mediterranean  countries  for  forage,  for 
ploughing  in  to  enrich  the  land,  and  for  its  round  flat 
seeds,  which  form  an  article  of  food.  This,  as  well  as  the 
other  two  mentioned  by  Gerard,  have  been  superseded  as 
garden  flowers  by  the  American  species,  e.g.,  L.  arboreus, 
Sims,  and  L.  polyphyllus,  from  California ;  L.  versicolor 
and  L.  tomentosus,  from  Peru. 

LURAY  CAVERN",  in  Page  county,  Virginia,  United 
States,  39°  35'  N.  lat.  and  78°  17'  W.  long.,  is  1  mile 
west  of  the  village  of  Luray,  on  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
Railroad.  The  valley,  here  10  miles  wide,  extends  from 
the  Blue  Ridge  to  the  Massanutton  mountain,  and  displays 
remarkably  fine  scenery.  These  ridges  lie  in  vast  folds 
and  wrinkles ;  and  elevations  in  the  valley  are  often  found 
to  be  pierced  by  erosion.  Cave  Hill,  300  feet  above  the 
water-level,  had  long  been  an  object  of  local  interest  on 
account  of  its  pits  and  oval  hollows,  or  sink-holes,  through 
one  of  which,  August  13,  1878,  Mr  Andrew  J.  Campbell 
and  others  entered,  thus  discovering  the  extensive  and 
beautiful  cavern  now  described. 

Geologically  considered,  the  Luray  cavern  does  not  date 
beyond  the  Tertiary  period,  though  carved  from  the  Silurian 
limestone.  At  some  period  long  subsequent  to  its  original 
excavation,  and  after  many  large  stalactites  had  grown,  it 
was  completely  filled  with  glacial  mud  charged  with  acid, 
whereby  the  dripstone  was  eroded  into  singularly  grotesque 
shapes.  After  the  mud  had  been  mostly  removed  by  flow 
ing  water,  these  eroded  forms  remained  amid  the  new 
growths.  To  this  contrast  may  be  ascribed  some  of  the 
most  striking  scenes  in  the  cave.  The  many  and  extra 
ordinary  monuments  of  aqueous  energy  include  massive 
columns  wrenched  from  their  place  in  the  ceiling  and  pro 
strate  on  the  floor ;  the  hollow  column  40  feet  high  and 
30  feet  in  diameter,  standing  erect,  but  pierced  by  a 
tubular  passage  from  top  to  bottom ;  the  leaning  column, 
nearly  as  large,  undermined  and  tilting  like  the  campanile 
of  Pisa ;  the  organ,  a  cluster  of  stalactites  dropped  points 
downward  and  standing  thus  in  the  room  known  as  the 
cathedral ;  besides  a  vast  bed  of  disintegrated  carbonates 
left  by  the  whirling  flood  in  its  retreat  through  the  great 
space  called  the  Elfin  Ramble. 

The  stalactitic  display  exceeds  that  of  any  other  cavern 
known,  and  there  is  hardly  a  square  yard  on  the  walls  or 
ceiling  that  is  not  thus  ornamented.  The  old  material  is 
yellow,  brown,  or  red ;  and  its  wavy  surface  often  shows 
layers  like  the  gnarled  grain  of  costly  woods.  The  new 
stalactites  growing  from  the  old,  and  made  of  hard  carbon 
ates  that  had  already  once  been  used,  are  usually  white 
as  snow,  though  often  pink,  blue,  or  amber-coloured.  The 
size  attained  by  single  specimens  is  surprising.  The 
Empress  Column  is  a  stalagmite  35  feet  high,  rose-coloured, 
and  elaborately  draped.  The  double  column,  named  from 
Professors  Henry  and  Baird,  is  made  of  two  fluted  pillars 
side  by  side,  the  one  25  and  the  other  60  feet  high,  a  mass 
of  snowy  alabaster.  Several  stalactites  in  the  Giant  Hall 
exceed  50  feet  in  length.  The  smaller  pendents  are  in 


numerable  ;  in  the  canopy  above  the  Imperial  Spring  it  is 
estimated  that  40,000  are  visible  at  once. 

The  "  cascades "  pointed  out  are  wonderful  formations 
like  foaming  cataracts  caught  in  mid-air  and  transformed 
into  milk-white  or  amber  alabaster.  The  Chalcedony 
Cascade  displays  a  variety  of  colours.  Brand's  Cascade, 
which  is  the  finest  of  all,  being  40  feet  high  and  30  feet 
wide,  is  unsullied  and  wax-like  white,  each  ripple  and 
braided  rill  seeming  to  have  been  polished. 

The  Swords  of  the  Titans  are  monstrous  blades,  eight  in 
number,  50  feet  long,  3  to  8  feet  wide,  hollow,  1  to  2  feet 
thick,  but  drawn  down  to  an  extremely  thin  edge,  and 
filling  the  cavern  with  tones  like  tolling  bells  when  struck 
heavily  by  the  hand.  Their  origin  and  also  that  of  certain 
so-called  scarfs  and  blankets  exhibited  is  from  carbonates 
deposited  by  water  trickling  down  a  sloping  and  corrugated 


Luray  Cavern.     Scale  290  feet  to  the  inch. 
The  Vestibule.  13.  Saracen's  Tent,  25.  Helen's  Scarf 

Washington's  Pillar.       14.  The  Organ 

]5.  Tower  of  Babel. 

10.  Empress  Column. 

17.  Hollow  Column. 


Flower  Garden. 
Amphitheatre. 
Natural  Bridge. 
Fish  Market. 
Crystal  Spring. 
Proserpine's  Pillar. 


26.  Chapman's  Lake. 

27.  Broaddus  Lake. 

28.  Castles  on  the  Rhine. 

29.  Imperial  Spring. 


18.  Henry-Baird  Column.  30.  The  Skeleton. 

10.  Chalcedony  Cascade.  31.  The  Twin  Lakes. 

20.  Coral  Spring.  32.  The  Engine  Room. 

The  Spectral  Column.    21.  The  Dragon.  33.  Miller's  Room. 

Hovey's  Balcony.  22.  Bootjack  Alley.  34.  Hawcs  Cabinet. 

Oberon's  Grot.  23.  Scaly  Column.  35.  Specimen  Avenue. 

Titania's  Veil.  24.  Lost  Blanket.  36.  Proposed  Exit. 


surface.  Sixteen  of  these  alabaster  scarfs  hang  side  by  side 
in  Hovey's  Balcony,  three  white  and  fine  as  crape  shawls, 
thirteen  striated  like  agate  with  every  shade  of  brown,  and 
all  perfectly  translucent.  Down  the  edge  of  each  a  tiny 
rill  glistens  like  silver,  and  this  is  the  ever-plying  shuttle 
that  weaves  the  fairy  fabric. 

Streams  and  true  springs  are  absent,  but  there  are 
hundreds  of  basins,  varying  from  1  to  50  feet  in  diameter, 
and  from  6  inches  to  15  feet  in  depth.  The  water  in  them 
is  exquisitely  pure,  except  as  it  is  impregnated  by  the 
carbonate  of  lime,  which  often  forms  concretions,  called, 
according  to  their  size,  pearls,  eggs,  and  snowballs.  A 
large  one  is  known  as  the  cannon  ball.  On  fracture  these 
spherical  growths  are  found  to  be  radiated  in  structure. 

Calcite  crystals,  drusy,  feathery,  or  fern-like,  line  the 
sides  and  bottom  of  every  water-filled  cavity,  and  indeed 
constitute  the  substance  of  which  they  are  made.  Varia 
tions  of  level  at  different  periods  are  marked  by  rings, 
ridges,  and  ruffled  margins.  These  are  strongly  marked 
about  Broaddus  Lake,  and  the  curved  ramparts  of  the 
Castles  on  the  Rhine.  Here  also  are  polished  stalag 
mites,  a  rich  buff  slashed  with  white,  and  others,  like 


68 


L  U  R  — L  U  K 


huge  mushrooms,  with  a  velvety  coat  of  red,  purple,  or 
olive-tinted  crystals.  In  some  of  the  smaller  basins  it 
sometimes  happens  that  when  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
escapes  rapidly  there  is  formed,  besides  the  crystal  bed 
below,  a  film  above,  shot  like  a  sheet  of  ice  across  the  sur 
face.  One  pool  12  feet  wide  is  thus  covered  so  as  to  show 
but  a  third  of  its  surface.  The  quantity  of  water  in  the 
cavern  varies  greatly  at  different  seasons.  Hence  some 
stalactites  have  their  tips  under  water  long  enough  to  allow 
tassels  of  crystais  to  grow  on  them,  which,  in  a  drier  season, 
are  again  coated  over  with  stalactitic  matter  ;  and  thus 
singular  distortions  are  occasioned.  Contiguous  stalactites 
are  often  iuwrapped  thus  till  they  assume  an  almost 
globular  form,  through  which,  by  making  a  section,  the 
primary  tubes  appear.  Twig-like  projections,  lateral  out 
growths,  to  which  the  term  helictits  has  been  applied,  are 
met  with  in  certain  portions  of  the  cave,  and  are  interesting 
by  their  strange  and  uncouth  contortions.  Their  presence 
is  partly  due  to  the  existence  of  a  diminutive  fungus 
peculiar  to  the  locality,  and  designated  from  its  habitat 
Mucor  stalactitis.  The  Toy-Shop  is  an  amusing  collection 
of  these  freaks  of  nature. 

The  dimensions  of  the  various  chambers  included  in 
Luray  Cavern  cannot  easily  be  stated,  on  account  of  the 
great  irregularity  of  their  outlines.  Their  size  may  be 
seen  from  the  diagram  on  p.  67.  But  it  should  be  under 
stood  that  there  are  several  tiers  of  galleries,  and  the 
vertical  depth  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  is  2GO  feet. 
The  tract  of  100  acres  owned  by  the  Luray  Cave  Company 
covers  all  possible  modes  of  entrance ;  and  the  explored 
area  is  much  less  than  that. 

The  waters  of  this  cavern  appear  to  be  entirely  destitute 
of  life  ;  and  the  existing  fauna  is  quite  meagre,  comprising 
only  a  few  bats,  rats,  mice,  spiders,  flies,  and  small  centi 
pedes.  When  the  cave  was  first  entered,  the  floor  was 
covered  with  thousands  of  tracks  of  raccoons,  wolves,  and 
bears, — most  of  them  probably  made  long  ago,  as  impres 
sions  made  in  the  tenacious  clay  that  composes  most  of 
the  cavern  floor  would  remain  unchanged  for  centuries. 
Layers  of  excrementitious  matter  appear,  and  also  many 
small  bones,  along  with  a  few  large  ones,  all  of  existing 
species.  The  traces  of  human  occupation  as  yet  discovered 
are  pieces  of  charcoal,  flints,  moccasin  tracks,  and  a  single 
skeleton  imbedded  in  stalagmite  in  one  of  the  chasms,  esti 
mated  to  have  lain  where  found  fornot  morethanfivehundred 
years,  judging  from  the  present  rate  of  stalagmitic  growth. 

The  temperature  is  uniformly  54°  Fahr.,  coinciding  with 
that  of  the  Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky.  The  air  is  very 
pure,  and  the  avenues  are  not  uncomfortably  damp. 

The  portions  open  to  the  public  are  now  lighted  by 
electric  lamps.  The  registered  number  of  visiters  in  1881 
was  12,000.  (H.  c.  H.) 

LUilGAN,  a  market-town  in  the  county  of  Armagh 
and  province  of  Ulster,  Ireland,  is  situated  a  few  miles 
south  of  Lough  Neagh,  and  20  miles  south-west  of  Belfast 
by  rail.  It  consists  principally  of  one  spacious  and 
well-built  street.  The  parish  church  of  Shankill  has  a 
finely  proportioned  tower.  The  other  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  mechanics'  institute,  the 
model  school,  and  the  linen-hall.  Contiguous  to  the  town 
is  Brownlow  House,  a  fine  Elizabethan  structure,  the 
seat  of  Lord  Lurgan.  Of  late  years  the  linen  trade  of  the 
town  has  much  increased,  and  there  are  also  tobacco 
factories  and  coach  factories.  From  7774  in  1861  the 
population  increased  in  1871  to  10,632,  but  in  1881  it 
was  only  10,184. 

Lurgan  was  built  by  William  Brownlow,  to  whom  a  grant  of  the 
town  was  made  by  James  I.  In  1619  it  consisted  of  forty-two 
houses,  all  inhabited  by  English  settlers.  It  was  burned  by  the 
insurgents  in  1641,  and  again  by  the  troops  of  James  II.  After  its 
restoration  in  1690  a  patent  for  a  market  and  fair  was  obtained. 


LURISTAN,  or  LURISTAN,  a  province  of  western  Persia, 
with  ill-defined  limits,  but  lying  mainly  between  31°  and 
33°  N.  lat.  and  between  47°  and  52°  E.  long.,  and  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  Irak-Adjemi,  S.  by  Farsistan,  W.  by  Khuzis- 
tan  and  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Baghdad.  It  thus  stretches 
north-west  and  south-east  some  260  miles,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  70  miles  and  an  area  of  rather  less  than  20,000' 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  mountainous,  being 
occupied  in  the  west  by  the  Fusht-i-koh  range,  which 
forms  the  frontier  line  towards  Turkey,  in  the  east 
by  the  Bakhtiari  (Zagros)  range,  which  runs  north 
west  and  south-east,  thus  connecting  the  Kurdistan 
with  the  Kuh- Dinar  or  Farsistan  highland  systems. 
Between  the  parallel  Pusht-i-koh  and  Bakhtiari  chains 
there  stretch  some  naturally  fertile  plains  and  low  hilly- 
districts,  which,  however,  are  little  cultivated,  although 
well-watered  by  the  Karun,  Dizful,  and  Kerkliah,  the  three 
chief  rivers  of  the  province.  There  are  two  main  divisions — 
Luri  Buzurg,  or  <l  Great  Luristan,"  comprising  the 
Bakhtiari  highlands  westwards  to  river  Dizful,  and  Luri 
Kuchak,  or  "  Little  Luristan,"  stretching  thence  to 
Khuzistan  and  Turkey.  The  latter  is  again  divided  into 
the  Pesh-koh  and  Pusht-i-koh  districts  ("before"  and 
"behind"  the  mountains),  and  notwithstanding  its  name 
is  by  far  the  most  populous  and  productive  of  the  two-. 
From  the  12th  to  the  17th  century  it  formed  an 
independent  principality  under  hereditary  rulers  with  the 
title  of  "atabeg,"  the  last  of  whom  was  deposed  by  Shah.' 
Abbas,  and  the  government  transferred  to  Husen  Khan, 
chief  of  the  Faili  tribe,  with  the  title  of  "vali."  His 
descendants  are  still  at  the  head  of  the  administration  ; 
but  the  power  of  the  valis  has  been  much  reduced  since 
the  transfer  of  the  Pesh-koh  district  to  Kirmanshah. 

Luristan  takes  its  name  from  the  Luri,1  a  semi-nomad  people  of 
Iranian  stock  and  speech,  who  still  form  the  vast  majority  of  the 
population.  Great  uncertainty  has  hitherto  prevailed  regarding  the. 
nomenclature,  the  main  divisions  and  the  true  affinity  of  the  Luri 
to  the  other  branches  of  the  Iranian  family.  Thus,  from  the  name 
of  the  present  ruling  clan  all  the  tribes  of  Luri  Kuchak  are  com 
monly  spoken  of  as  "Faili,"  a  term  which  is  now  rejected  by  the 
Pesh-koh  tribes,  and  which,  if  used  at  all  as  a  general  ethnical 
expression,  ought  to  be  restricted  to  those  of  Fusht-i-koh,  still 
under  the  rule  of  the  vali.  The  classifications  of  Layard,  Rawlin- 
son,  and  A.  H.  Schindler  differ  materially,  while  contradictory 
statements  are  made  by  well-informed  writers  regarding  the  physi 
cal  and  linguistic  relations  of  the  Luri  to  the  neighbouring  Kurds- 
and  Persians.  From  a  careful  consideration  of  the  available 
evidence  it  would  appear  that  the  Luri  are  the  true  aborigines  of 
their  present  domain,  where  they  occupy  an  intermediate  position 
between  the  Kurds  and  Persians,  but  resembling  the  former  much 
more  than  the  latter  in  speech,  temperament,  social  habits,  and; 
physical  appearance.  Although  they  themselves  reject  the  name 
of  Kurd,  the  two  languages  are  essentially  one,  so  that  the  natives 
of  Kirmanshah  and  Dizful  have  little  difficulty  in  conversing 
together.  Like  the  Kurds,  they  are  also  of  a  restless  and  unruly 
disposition,  averse  from  a  settled  life,  still  dwellers  in  tents,  mostly 
owners  of  flocks  and  herds,  holding  agriculture  in  contempt,  and  of 
predatory  habits.  "  In  appearance  the  Bakhtiari  look  rather  fierce,, 
owing  probably  to  the  mode  of  life  they  lead  ;  the  features  of  their 
face  are  cast  in  a  rough  mould,  but  although  coarse  they  are  in 
general  regular.  Their  black  eyes  look  wild  and  expressive,  and  the 
two  black  tufts  of  hair  behind  their  ears  give  them,  if  possible,  a 
still  darker  appearance.  They  are  muscular  built,  and  are  chiefly 
of  a  middle  stature  "  (E.  Balfour).  In  a  word,  the  Luri  must  be 
classed  anthropologically  in  the  same  group  as  the  Kurds.  They 
are  excellent  stockbreeders,  and  their  horses  and  mules  are  regarded 
as  the  very  best  in  Persia.  Of  the  mules,  about  a  thousand  are 
annually  exported  to  the  surrounding  provinces.  Most  of  the  hard 
work  is  left  to  the  women,  who  tend  the  flocks,  till  the  little  land 
under  cultivation,  tread  out  the  corn,  and  weave  the  carpets,  black 
goat-hair  tents,  and  horse  cloths  for  which  Luristan  is  famous.  The 
men  put  their  hands  to  no  useful  work,  go  about  armed,  and  are 
always  ready  for  a  foray.  Their  constant  intertribal  feuds  render  the 
country  unsafe  for  trade  and  travel,  while  their  revolts  against  the 
central  government  often  cause  a  total  interruption  of  communi- 

1  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Luri  or  Lori  of  Baluchistan  and 
Sind,  tinkers,  bards,  strolling  minstrels,  &c. ,  betraying  a  "marked 
affinity  to  the  Gipsies  of  Europe  "  (Pottinger). 


L  U  !3  —  L  U  S 


69 


cation  between  the  several  districts.  This  evil,  however,  has  some 
what  abated  since  the  tribal  chiefs  have  been  compelled  to  give 
hostages  as  security  for  their  good  behaviour. 

Outwardly  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiah  sect,  the  Luri  show  little 
veneration  either  for  the  Prophet  or  the  Koran.  Their  religion  seems 
to  be  a  curious  mixture  of  Ali-Ilahism,  involving  a  belief  in  succes 
sive  incarnations  and  the  worship  of  the  national  saint,  Baba 
Buzurg,  combined  with  many  mysterious  rites,  sacrifices,  and  secret 
•meetings  certainly  anterior  to  Islam,  and  possibly  traceable  to  the 
ancient  rites  of  Mithras  and  Anaitis. 

The  chiefs  enjoy  almost  unlimited  authority  over  their  subjects, 
and  the  tribal  organization  is  strongly  marked  by  the  feudal  spirit. 

The  total  population  of  Luristan  is  about  320,000,  and  the  average 
revenue  nearly  £40,000  sterling. 

LUSATIA  (German,  Lausitz)  is  a  common  name  applied 
to  two  neighbouring  districts  in  Germany,  Lusatia  Superior 
and  Lusatia  Inferior (Oberlausitz  and  Niederlausitz),  belong 
ing  in  part  to  Prussia  and  in  part  to  Saxony.     The  country 
now  known  as  Upper  Lusatia   was  occupied  in  the  7th 
century  by  the  Milcieni,  a  Slavonic  tribe.     In  the  10th 
century  it  was  annexed  to  the  German  kingdom  by  the 
margraves    of  Meissen,  and    from    this   time  for   several 
centuries  it  was  called  Budissin  (Bautzen),  from  the  name 
•of  the  principal  fortress.      In  the  llth  and  12th  centuries 
Budissin  changed  hands  several  times,  being  connected  at 
different    periods    with    Meissen,   Poland,    and    Bohemia. 
The  emperor   Frederick    I.  granted  it    in   1158  to  King 
Ladislaus  of  Bohemia,  and  under  him  and  his  immediate 
successors  it  was  largely  colonized  by  German  immigrants. 
Between  1253  and  1319  it  belonged  to  Brandenburg,  to 
the  margrave  of  which  it  was  given  in  pledge  by  King 
Ottocar  II.  of  Bohemia;  and  in  1268  it  was  divided  into 
an    eastern    and    a    western    part— Budissin    proper    and 
•Go'rlitz.      In     1319     Budissin    proper    was    restored    to 
Bohemia,  which  also  recovered  Gorlitz  in  1346.     It  was 
during  this   period  that   the   fortunes  of   Budissin   were 
associated  with  those    of   the    country   afterwards    called 
Lower  Lusatia,  but  uriginally  Lusatia.     It  was  inhabited 
fey  a  Slavonic  tribe,  the  Lusici,  and  reached  in  the  earliest 
times  from  the  Black  Elster  to  the  Spree.     The    Lusici 
were  conquered  by  Margrave  Gero  in  963,  and  their  land 
•was  soon  formed  into  a  separate  march,  sometimes  attached 
to,  sometimes  independent  of,  the  march  of  Meissen.     In 
1303  it  passed,  as  Budissin  had   done,  to  Brandenburg, 
and  in  1373,  after  several  changes,  it  fell  into  the  hands 
•of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  as  king  of  Bohemia.     During 
the   Huslite   wars   the   people   of   Lusatia  and  Budissin 
remained   loyal   to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in 
1467  they  recognized  as  their  sovereign  King  Matthias  of 
Hungary.     Twenty-three  years  later  they  were  again  united 
to  Bohemia,  but  in  the  meantime  they  had  received  from 
the  Hungarian  Government  the  names  which  they  have 
since  retained.     In   the    16th    century  the   Reformation 
made  way  rapidly  in  Upper  Lusatia,  and  the  majority  of 
the  people  became  Protestants.     The  two  countries  were 
•conquered  in  1620,  with  the  sanction  of  Ferdinand  II,, 
by  the   Saxon   elector,  John  George    L,  to    whom   they 
were    ceded  in   1635,   the   emperor   as  king  of  Bohemia 
retaining  a  certain  supremacy  for  the  purpose  of  guarding 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
In  1815    the   whole   of   Lower   Lusatia  and  the  half  of 
Upper  Lusatia  were  transferred  from  Saxony  to  Prussia. 
Lower  Lusatia  has  395,800  inhabitants,  of  whom  50,000 
are   Wends ;  the  portion  of  Upper  Lusatia  belonging  to 
Prussia  has  243,500  inhabitants,  of  whom  32,000  are  Wends. 
There   are  300,000  inhabitants,  including  50,000  Wends, 
in  Saxon  Upper  Lusatia.     Laws  relating  to  Upper  Lusatia, 
which  are  passed  by  the  Saxon  Parliament,  must  still  be 
.submitted  to  the  Lusatian  diet  at  Bautzen. 

LUSHAI  OR  KUKI  HILLS,  a  wild  and  imperfectly 
known  tract  of  country  on  the  north-eastern  frontier  of 
India,  extending  along  the  southern  border  of  the  Assam 


district  of  Cachar  and  the  eastern  border  of  the  Bengal 
district  of  Chittagong.  On  the  east,  the  Lushai  Hills 
stretch  away  into  the  unexplored  mountains  of  Independent 
Burmah.  This  extensive  region  is  occupied  by  a  numerous 
family  of  tribes  known  to  us  indifferently  as  Lushais  or 
Kukis.  All  these  tribes  are  nomadic  in  their  habits,  and 
subject  to  successive  waves  of  migration.  It  is  said  that 
at  the  present  time  the  entire  race  of  the  Lushdis  is  being 
forced  southwards  into  British  territory  under  pressure 
from  the  Soktis,  a  tribe  advancing  upon  them  from  Inde 
pendent  Burmah.  The  principal  characteristic  common  to 
all  the  LusMis,  and  in  which  they  markedly  differ  from 
the  other  tribes  on  the  Assam  frontier,  is  their  feudal 
organization  under  hereditary  chiefs.  Each  village  is 
under  the  military  command  of  a  chief,  who  must  come  of 
a  certain  royal  stock.  The  chief  exercises  absolute  power 
in  the  village  ;  and  his  dignity  and  wealth  are  maintained 
by  a  large  number  of  slaves  and  by  fixed  contributions  of 
labour  from  his  free  subjects.  Cultivation  is  carried  on 
according  to  the  nomadic  system  of  tillage  on  temporary 
clearings  in  the  jungle;  but  the  main  occupation  of  the 
people  is  hunting  and  warfare 

From  the  earliest  times  the  Lushais  have  been  notorious  for  their 
sanguinary  raids  into  British  territory,  which  are  said  to  be 
instigated  by  their  desire  to  obtain  human  heads  for  use  at  their 
funeral  ceremonies.-  The  first  of  which  we  have  record  was  in  1777. 
In  1849  a  colony  of  Lushais  settled  within  Cachar,  was  attacked 
by  their  independent  kinsmen,  and  forced  to  migrate  northwards 
across  the  Barak  river,  where  they  now  live  as  peaceable  British 
subjects,  and  are  known  as  "Old  Kukis."  In  1860 a  raid  was  made 
upon  Tipperah  district,  in  which  186  Bengali  villagers  were 
massacred  and  100  carried  away  into  captivity.  Retributive 
expeditions,  consisting  of  small  forces  of  sepoys,  were  repeatedly 
sent  to  punish  these  raids,  but,  owing  to  the  difficult  nature  of  the 
country  and  the  fugitive  tactics  of  the  enemy,  no  permanent 
advantage  was  gained.  At  last  the  disturbed  state  of  the  frontier 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  supreme  government.  A  military 
demonstration  in  1869  had  entirely  failed  in  its  object.  Relying 
upon  their  belief  in  the  impracticable  character  of  their  native 
country,  the  Lushais  made  a  series  of  simultaneous  attacks  in 
January  1871  upon  British  villages  in  Cachar,  Sylhet,  and  Tipperah, 
as  well  as  on  the  independent  state  of  Manipur.  The  outpost  of 
Monierkhal  repelled  a  number  of  attacks,  lasting  through  two  days, 
made  by  a  second  body  of  Lushais  from  the  eastern  tribes,  who 
finally  retired  with  a  large  amount  of  plunder,  including  many 
coolies  and  guns.  Lord  Mayo,  the  viceroy,  resolved  to  make  a 
vigorous  effort  to  stop  those  inroads,  once  and  for  all.  A  punitive 
expedition  was  organized,  composed  of  two  Gurkha  battalions,  two 
Punjab  and  two  Bengal  native  infantry  regiments,  two  companies 
of  sappers  and  miners,  and  a  detachment  of  the  Peshawar  mountain 
battery.  This  little  army  was  divided  into  two  columns,  one 
advancing  from  Cachar  and  the  other  from  the  Chittagong  side. 
Both  columns  were  completely  successful.  The  resistance  of  the 
Lnshais,  though  obstinate  in  parts,  was  completely  overcome,  and 
the  chiefs  made  their  personal  submission  and  accepted  the  terms 
offered  them.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  British  subjects  were 
liberated  from  captivity.  The  actual  British  loss  in  fighting  was 
very  small,  but  a  large  number  of  soldiers  and  camp-followers  died 
from  cholera.  Since  this  expedition,  the  Lushais  have  remained 
quiet  along  the  entire  frontier,  and  active  measures  have  been 
taken  to  open  commercial  intercourse  between  them  and  the  people 
of  the  plains.  Many  bdzdrs  have  been  established  for  this  purpose, 
and  trade  by  barter  is  now  freely  carried  on. 

LUSTRATION"  is  a  term  that  includes  all  the  methods 
of  purification  and  expiation  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Among  the  Greeks  there  are  two  ideas  clearly 
distinguishable — that  human  nature  must  purify  itself  from 
guilt  before  it  is  fit  to  enter  into  communion  with  God  or 
even  to  associate  with  men  (/ca$cupco,  Ka$apo-ts),  and  that 
guilt  must  be  expiated  voluntarily  by  certain  processes 
which  God  has  revealed  in  order  to  avoid  the  punishment 
that  must  otherwise  overtake  it  (iAao-/xos).  It  is  not 
possible  to  make  such  a  distinction  among  the  Latin  terms 
lustratio,  piacula,  piamcnta,  c&rimonix,  and  even  among 
the  Greeks  it  is  not  consistently  observed.  The  conception 
of  sin  never  reached  a  high  moral  standard,  and  tlie 
methods  of  lustration  are  purely  ritualistic.  Guilt  and 


70 


L  U  T  —  L  U  T 


impurity  arose  in  various  ways ;  among  the  Greeks, 
besides  the  general  idea  that  man  is  always  in  need  of 
purification,  the  species  of  guilt  most  insisted  on  by  religion 
are  incurred  by  murder,  by  touching  a  dead  body,  by 
sexual  intercourse,  and  by  seeing  a  prodigy  or  sign  of  the 
divine  will.  The  last  three  of  these  spring  from  the  idea 
that  man  had  been  without  preparation  and  in  an  improper 
manner  brought  into  communication  with  God,  and  was 
therefore  guilty.  The  first,  which  involves  a  really  moral 
idea  of,  guilt,  is  far  more  important  than  the  others  in 
Hellenic  religion.  Among  the  Romans  we  hear  more  of 
the  last  species  of  impurity ;  in  general  the  idea  takes  the 
form  that  after  some  great  disaster  the  people  become 
convinced  that  some  guilt  has  been  incurred  somewhere 
and  must  be  expiated.  The  methods  of  purification 
consist  in  ceremonies  performed  with  water,  fire,  air,  or 
earth,  or  with  a  branch  of  a  sacred  tree,  especially  of  the 
laurel,  and  also  in  sacrifice  and  other  ceremonial.  Before 
entering  a  temple  the  worshipper  dipped  his  hand  in 
the  vase  of  holy  water  (Trepippavrripiov,  aqua  lustralis) 
which  stood  at  the  door ;  before  a  sacrifice  bathing  was 
a  common  kind  of  purification ;  salt-water  was  more 
efficacious  than  fresh,  and  the  celebrants  of  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries  bathed  in  the  sea  (uAaSe  //.varai) ;  the  water  was 
more  efficacious  if  a  firebrand  from  the  altar  were  plunged 
in  it.  The  torch,  fire,  and  sulphur  (TO  Oelov)  were  also 
powerful  purifying  agents.  Purification  by  air  was  most 
frequent  in  the  Dionysiac  mysteries ;  puppets  suspended 
and  swinging  in  the  air  (oscilla)  formed  one  way  of  using 
the  lustrative  power  of  the  air.  Rubbing  with  sand  and 
salt  was  another  excellent  method.  The  sacrifice  chiefly 
used  for  purification  by  the  Greeks  was  a  pig ;  among  the 
Romans  it  was  always,  except  in  the  Lupercalia,  a  pig,  a 
sheep,  and  a  bull  (suovetaurilia).  In  Athens  a  purificatory 
sacrifice  and  prayer  was  held  before  every  public  meeting ; 
the  Maimacteria  in  honour  of  Zeus  Meilichios  was  an 
annual  festival  of  purification,  and  several  other  feasts  had 
the  same  character.  On  extraordinary  occasions  lustrations 
were  performed  for  a  whole  city.  So  Athens  was  purified 
by  Epimenides  after  the  Cylonian  massacre,  and  Delos  in 
the  Peloponnesian  War.  In  Rome,  besides  such  annual 
ceremonies  as  the  Ambarvalia,  Lupercalia^  Cerealia, 
Payanalia,  Arc.,  there  was  a  lustration  of  the  fleet  before 
it  sailed,  and  of  the  army  before  it  marched.  Part  of  the 
ceremonial  always  consisted  in  leading  or  carrying  the 
victims  round  the  impure  persons  or  things.  After  any 
disaster  the  lustratio  dassium  or  jexercitus  was  often  again 
performed,  so  as  to  make  certain  that  the  gods  got  all  their 
due.  The  Amburbium  was  a  similar  ceremonial  performed 
for  the  whole  city  on  occasions  of  great  danger  or  calamity. 
Ambilustrium,  was  the  purificatory  ceremony,  consisting  in 
sacrifice  and  prayer,  performed  after  the  regular  quin 
quennial  census  of  the  Roman  people. 

LUTE.  The  European  lute  is  derived  in  form  and 
name  from  the  Arabic  "  el  cud,"  "  the  wood,"  the  consonant 
of  the  article  "  el "  having  been  retained  in  the  European 
languages  for  the  initial  of  the  name  (French,  luth;  Ital., 
liuto;  Span.,  laud;  German,  Laute ;  Dutch,  luit).  The 
Arab  instrument,  with  convex  sound-body,  pointing  to  the 
resonance  board  or  membrane  having  been  originally  placed 
upon  a  gourd,  was  strung  with  silk  and  played  with  a 
plectrum  of  shell  or  quill.  It  was  adopted  by  the  Arabs 
from  Persia,  the  typical  instrument  being  the  two-stringed 
"  tanbur,"  and  ultimately  found  its  way  to  the  West  at 
the  time  of  the  crusades.  The  modern  Egyptian  "cud" 
is  the  direct  descendant  of  the  Arabic  lute,  and,  according 
to  Lane,  is  strung  with  seven  pairs  of  catgut  strings  played 
by  a  plectrum.  A  specimen  at  South  Kensington,  given 
by  the  Khedive,  has  four  pairs  only,  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  old  stringing  of  the  instrument.  When  frets  are  j 


employed  they  are  of  catgut  disposed  according  to  the 
Arabic  scale  of  seventeen  intervals  in  the  octave,  consist 
ing  of  twelve  limmas,  an  interval  rather  less  than  our  equal 
semitone,  and  five  commas,  which  are  very  small  but  quite 
recognizable  differences  of  pitch. 

The  lute  family  is  separated  from  the  guitars,  also  of 
Eastern  origin,  by  the  formation  of  the  sound  body,  which 
is  in  all  lutes  pear-shaped,  without  the  sides  or  ribs  neces 
sary  to  the  structure  of  the  flat-backed  guitar  and  cither. 
Observing  this  distinction,  we  include  with  the  lute  the  little 
Neapolitan  mandoline  of  2  feet  long,  and  the  large  double- 
necked  Roman  chitarrone,  which  not  unfrequently  attains 
to  a  length  of  6  feet.  Mandolines  are  partly  strung  with 
wire,  and  are  played  with  a  plectrum,  indispensable  for 
metal  or  short  strings.  Perhaps  the  earliest  lutes  were  so 
played,  but  the  large  lutes  and  theorbos  strung  with  catgut 
have  been  invariably  touched  by  the  fingers  only,  the  length 
permitting  this  more  sympathetic  means  of  producing  the 
tone. 

The  Neapolitan  is  the  best  known  mandoline ;  it  was 
indicated  by  Mozart  in  the  score  of  Don  Giovanni,  to 
accompany  the  famous  serenade.  The  four  pairs  of  strings 
are  tuned  like  the  violin,  in  fifths  : — 


— p=p— q 

lE^^fE:  E±EhE3 


The  Milanese  is  larger,  and  has  five  and  six  pairs  : — 


--  !—  --I  ---  9  -.0  ---  •._• 

--EE—  *-  *—       ^=t—  t~ 

—  - 


or,  as  in  a  specimen  at  South  Kensington, 


The  mandola  or  mandore  is  larger  than  either,  with  eight 
pairs  of  strings.  This  name  has  been  derived  from  the 
Italian  word,  similarly  spelled  but  differently  accented, 
signifying  almond,  which  the  mandola  is  supposed  to 
resemble  in  shape,  but  ban,  man,  pan,  and  tan  are  first 
syllables  of  lute  and  guitar  instruments  met  with  all  over 
the  world,  the  oldest  form  of  which  is  the  borrowed  Greek 
"  TravBovpa"  an  Asiatic  word,  which  the  Arabs  changed  to 
"  tanbur."  Pra3torius  (Organographia,  Wolfenbiittel,  1619, 
a  scarce  work,  of  which  the  only  copy  in  Great  Britain 
is  in  the  Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh),  writing  when 
the  lute  was  in  universal  favour,  mentions  seven  varieties 
distinguished  by  size  and  tuning.  The  smallest  would  be 
larger  than  a  mandoline,  and  the  melody  string,  the  "chan 
terelle,"  often  a  single  string,  lower  in  pitch.  Prsetorius 
calls  this  an  octave  lute,  with  the  chanterelle  C  or  D.  The 
two  discant  lutes  have  respectively  B  and  A,  the  alto  G, 
the  tenor  E,  the  bass  D,  and  the  great  octave  bass  G,  an 
octave  below  the  alto  lute  which  may  be  taken  as  the  model 
lute  cultivated  by  the  amateurs  of  the  time.  The  bass  lutes 
were  most  likely  theorbos,  that  is,  double-necked  lutes,  as 
described  below.  The  accordance  of  an  alto  lute  was 

_^      _^ -O- £_ 

[       '      .    I     J        -er—^         h~  I  I       |  q 

founded  upon  that  of  the  original  eight-stringed  European 
lute,  to  which  the  highest  and  lowest  notes  had,  in  course 


rryr— 
of  time,  been  added.     A  later  addition  was  the  p2-— |— |- 

\_^ 
also  on  the  finger-board,  and  bass  strings,  double  or  single, 


L  U  T  —  L  U  T 


71 


known  as  diapasons,  which,  descending  to  the  deep  C  of 
the  violoncello,  were  not  stopped  with  the  fingers.  The 
diapasons  were  tuned  as  the  key  of  the  piece  of  music 
required.  The  illustration  represents  an  Italian  instrument 
made  by  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated  lute  makers,  Venere 
of  Padua,  in  1600;  it  is 
3  feet  6  inches  high,  and  has 
six  pairs  of  unisons  and  eight 
single  diapasons.  The  finger 
board,  divided  into  approxi 
mately  equal  half  tones  by 
the  frets,  as  a  rule  eight  in 
number,  was  often  further 
divided  on  the  higher  notes, 
for  ten,  eleven,  or,  as  in  the 
woodcut,  even  twelve,  semi 
tones.  The  head,  bearing  the 
tuning  pegs,  was  placed  at  an 
obtuse  or  a  right  angle  to  the 
neck,  to  increase  the  bearing 
of  the  strings  upon  the  nut, 
and  be  convenient  for  sudden 
requirements  of  tuning  dur 
ing  performance,  the  trouble 
of  keeping  a  lute  in  tune 
being  proverbial. 

The  lute  was  in  general  use        L«te,  by  Venere  of  Padua, 
during  the   ICth  and   17th  centuries.       In  the   18th   it 
declined ;  still  the  great  J.  S.  Bach  wrote  a  "  partita  "  for 
it,  which  remains  in  manuscript.      The  latest  date  we  have 
met  with  of  an  engraved  publication  for  the  lute  is  1760. 

The  large  double-necked  lute,  with  two  sets  of  tuning 
pegs,  the  lower  for  the  finger-board,  the  higher  for  the 
diapason  strings,  was  known  as  the  theorbo ;  also,  and 
especially  in  England,  as  the  archlute ;  and,  in  a  special 
form,  the  neck  being  then  very  long,  as  the  chitarrone. 
Theorbo  and  chitarrone  appear  together  at  the  close  of 
the  16th  century,  and  their  introduction  was  synchronous 
with  the  rise  of  accompanied  monody  in  music,  that  is,  of 
the  oratorio  and  the  opera.  Peri,  Caccini,  and  Monte- 
verde  used  theorbos  to  accompany  their  newly-devised 
recitative,  the  invention  of  which  in  Florence,  from  the  im 
pulse  of  the  Renaissance,  is  well  known.  The  height  of  a 
theorbo  varied  from  3  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet,  the  Paduan 
being  always  the  largest,  excepting  the  Roman  6-feet  long 
chitarrone.  These  large  lutes  had  very  deep  notes,  and 
doubtless  great  liberties  were  allowed  in  tuning,  but  the 
strings  on  the  finger-board  followed  the  lute  accordance 
already  given,  or  another  quoted  by  Baron  (Untersuchung 
des  Instruments  der  Lauten^  Nuremberg,  1727)  as  the 
old  theorbo  or  "  violway  "  (see  Mace,  Musick's  Monument, 
London,  1676):— 

We  find  again  both  these  accordances  varied  and  trans 
posed  a  tone  higher,  perhaps  with  thinner  strings,  or  to 
accommodate  local  differences  of  pitch ;  Praetorius  recom 
mends  the  chanterelles  of  theorbos  being  tuned  an  octave 
lower  on  account  of  the  great  strain.  By  such  a  change, 
another  authority,  the  Englishman  Thomas  Mace,  says,  the 
life  and  spruceness  of  airy  lessons  were  quite  lost.  The 
theorbo  or  archlute  had  at  last  to  give  way  to  the  violon 
cello  and  double  bass,  which  are  still  used  to  accompany 
the  "recitative  secco"  in  oratorios  and  operas.  Handel 
wrote  a  part  for  a  theorbo  in  Esther  (1720);  after  that 
date  it  appears  no  more  in  orchestral  scores,  but  remained 
in  private  use  until  nearly  the  end  of  the  century. 


We  cannot  refrain  from  admiring  the  beauty  of  decora 
tion  of  ivory,  mother  of  pearl,  and  tortoiseshell,  the  charac 
teristic  patterning  of  the  "  knots  "  or  "  roses  "  in  the  sound 
boards,  all  of  which  was  so  well  allied  with  the  extremely 
artistic  forms  of  the  different  lutes,  rendering  them,  now 
their  musical  use  is  past,  objects  of  research  for  collections 
and  museums.  The  present  direction  of  musical  taste  and 
composition  is  adverse  to  the  cultivation  of  such  tenderly 
sensitive  timbre  as  the  lute  possessed.  The  lute  and  the 
organ  share  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  instruments 
for  which  the  oldest  instrumental  compositions  we  possess 
were  written.  It  was  not  for  the  lute,  however,  in  our  pre 
sent  notation,  but  in  tablature,  "lyrawise,"  a  system  by  which 
as  many  lines  were  drawn  horizontally  as  there  were  pairs 
of  strings  on  the  finger-board,  the  frets  being  distinguished 
by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  repeated  from  A  for  each  line. 
This  was  the  English  manner:  the  Italian  was  by  numbers 
instead  of  letters.  The  signs  of  time  were  placed  over  the 
stave,  and  were  not  repeated  unless  the  mensural  values 
changed. 

Consult  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  arts.  "Lute,"  "Frets"; 
Stainer  and  Barrett's  Dictionary  of  Music,  "  Tablature " ;  and 
the  admirable  museum  catalogues  of  Carl  Engel  (South  Kensington), 
G.  Chouquet  (Paris),  and  Victor  Mahillon  (Brussels).  (A.  J.  H. ) 

LUTHER  (1483-1546).  First  Period  (1483-1517). 
— Martin  Luther  (Lyder,  Liider,  Ludher — from  Lothar, 
some  say)  was  born  at*Eisleben  in  the  county  of  Mansfeld, 
in  Thuringia,  on  the  10th  of  November  1483.  His  father 
Hans  Luther,  a  slate-cutter  by  trade,  belonged  to  a  family 
of  free  peasants.  His  mother  was  Margaret  Lindeburn. 
Hans  Luther  had  left  Mohra,  his  native  village,  and  had 
come  to  Eisleben  to  work  as  a  miner.  When  Martin  was 
six  months  old  he  went  to  Mansfeld  and  set  up  a  forge, 
the  small  profits  of  which  enabled  him  to  send  his  son  to 
the  Latin  school  of  the  place.  There  the  boy  so  distin 
guished  himself  that  his  father  determined  to  make  him  a 
lawyer,  and  sent  him  for  a  year  to  a  Franciscan  school  at 
Magdeburg,  and  then  to  Eisenach  near  Mohra.  There 
Luther,  with  other  poor  scholars,  sang  for  alms  in  the 
streets,  and  his  fine  tenor  voice  and  gentle  manners 
attracted  the  attention  and  gained  for  him  the  motherly 
care  of  Ursula  Cotta,  the  wife  of  the  burgomaster  of 
Eisenach.  From  Eisenach  he  went  in  his  eighteenth  year 
to  the  high  school  of  Erfurt,  where  his  favourite  master 
was  the  humanist  Trutwetter,  who  taught  him  classics  and 
philosophy.  He  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1502,  and 
his  master's  in  1505.  At  Erfurt  the  preaching  of  the  town's 
pastor  Weisemann  made  a  deep  impression  on  his  mind, 
as  did  the  preacher's  frequent  exhortations  to  study  the 
Scripture.  Luther  tells  us  that  he  sought  in  vain  for  a 
whole  Bible,  and  that  he  could  only  get  portions  to  read. 
A  dangerous  illness,  the  death  of  a  near  friend,  together 
with  other  circumstances,  so  Brought  on  his  pious,  sensitive 
nature  that  in  spite  of  father  and  family  he  resolved  to  give 
up  all  his  prospects  and  become  a  monk.  He  entered  the 
Aagustinian  convent  at  Erfurt  in  June  1505,  taking  with 
him  Plautus  and  Virgil,  the  solitary  mementos  of  the  life 
he  had  abandoned.  His  first  years  of  monastic  life  were 
spent  in  fierce  mental  struggle.  He  had  found  a  whole 
Bible  and  read  it  diligently,  but  it  did  not  bring  him  peace. 
The  feeling  of  universal  human  sinfulness,  and  of  his  own, 
was  burnt  into  him  both  by  his  dogmatic  studies  and  by 
his  reading  of  the  Scripture.  He  lived  a  life  of  the  severest 
mortification,  and  invented  continually  new  forms  of 
penance,  and  all  the  while  heart  and  head  alike  told  him 
that  outward  acts  could  never  banish  sin.  "  I  tormented 
myself  to  death,"  he  said,  "  to  make  my  peace  with  God, 
but  I  was  in  darkness  and  found  it  not."  The  vicar- 
general  of  his  order,  Staupitz,  who  had  passed  through 
somewhat  similar  experiences,  helped  him  greatly.  "  There 


72 


L  U  T  H  E  K 


is  no  true  repentance,"  he  said,  "  but  that  which  begins 
with  the  love  of  righteousness  and  of  God.  Love  Him 
then  who  has  first  loved  thee."  Staupitz  had  been  taught 
heart  religion  by  the  mystics,  and  he  sent  Luther  to  the 
sermons  of  Tauler  and  to  the  Tkeolor/ia  Germanica. 

When  Luther  regained  his  mental  health,  he  took  courage 
to  be  ordained  priest  in  May  1507,  and  next  year,  on  j 
the  recommendation  of  Staupitz,  the  elector  of  Saxony  j 
appointed  him  professor  in  the  university  of  Wittenberg, 
which  had  been  founded  in  1502.  While  in  the  monastery 
Luther"  had  assiduously  pursued  his  studies,  and  his  severe 
mortifications  and  penances  had  never  interrupted  his 
theological  work.  He  read  all  the  great  scholastic  theo 
logians,  but  Augustine  was  his  master  in  theology,  while 
Erfurt  studies  under  Trutwetter  doubtless  made  him  pore 
over  Occam  ("  mein  lieber  Meister,"  as  he  afterwards 
fondly  called  him)  till  he  got  his  bulky  folios  by  heart. 
He  began  by  lecturing  on  Aristotle;  and  in  1509  he 
gave  Biblical  lectures,  which  from  the  very  first  were 
a  power  in  the  university.  His  class-room  was  thronged ; 
his  fellow-professors  were  students.  Staupitz  forced  him 
also  to  preach ;  and  his  marvellous  eloquence,  felt  to 
be  from  the  heart,  attracted  great  crowds  of  hearers. 
The  year  1511  brought  an  apparent  interruption,  but 
in  fact  only  a  new  development,  of  Luther's  character 
and  knowledge  of  the  world.  He  went  to  Rome,  probably 
in  fulfilment  of  an  old  vow,  and  the  journey  was  a 
marked  event  in  his  life.  He  went  up  in  true  pilgrim 
spirit,  a  medieval  Christian,  and  he  came  back  a  Pro 
testant.  The  pious  German  was  horrified  with  what  he 
saw  in  Rome,  and  he  afterwards  made  telling  use  of  what 
ha  had  seen  in  various  tracts,  and  notably  in  his  address  to 
the  German  nobles.  He  tells  us  that  at  Wittenberg  he  had 
pandered  over  the  text,  "  The  just  shall  live  by  faith," 
that  while  in  Rome  the  words  came  back  to  him,  and  that 
on  his  return  journey  to  Germany  the  evangelical  meaning 
of  the  phrase  rushed  into  his  mind.  On  his  return  to  the 
university  he  was  promoted  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
divinity,  in  October  1512.  The  oath  he  had  to  take  on 
the  occasion  "to  devote  his  whole  life  to  study,  and  faith 
fully  to  expound  and  defend  the  holy  Scripture,"  was  to 
him  the  seal  of  his  mission.  He  began  his  work  with 
lectures  on  the  Psalms,  and  then  proceeded  to  comment 
on  the  epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians, 
enforcing  especially  his  peculiar  views  of  the  relations 
between  law  and  gospel.  His  lectures  and  his  sermons 
were  attended  by  great  audiences,  and  disciples  gathered 
round  him.  As  early  as  1516  his  special  principles  were 
publicly  defended  at  academical  disputations.  Staupitz 
made  him  district-vicar  of  his  order  for  Meissen  and 
Thuringia.  He  made  short  preaching  tours,  and  his  in 
fluence  was  felt  far  beyond  Wittenberg.  When  the  plague 
came  to  that  university  town  he  remained  at  his  post  when 
others  fled.  Then  came  1517,  the  year  of  the  Reformation. 
The  new  pope,  Leo  X.,  had  sent  agents  through  Germany  to 
sell  indulgences,  and  had  chosen  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
monk,  for  Saxony.  Luther,  who  had  passed  through  deep 
soul-struggles  ere  he  won  pardon,  knew  that  God's  forgive 
ness  could  not  bo  purchased  for  money,  and  thundered 
against  Tetzel  and  his  indulgences  from  Wittenberg  pulpit. 
He  wrote  anxiously  to  the  princes  and  bishops  to  refuse 
The  the  pardon-seller  a  passage  through  their  lands.  When 
Witten-  Tetzel  got  to  Juterbogk  near  Wittenberg,  Luther  could 
tliesL  Rtan(i  it  no  longer.  He  wrote  out  ninety-five  propositions 
or  theses  denouncing  indulgences,  and  on  the  evetof  All 
Saints,  October  31,  nailed  the  paper  to  the  door  of  the 
Castle  church.  In  a  short  time  all  Germany  was  ablaze. 

These  ninety-five  theses  are  one  continuous  harangue 
against  the  doctrine  and  practice  of  pardon-selling,  but 
they  do  not  openly  denounce  indulgence  in  every  form. 


They  make  plain  these  three  things: — (1)  there  maybe 
some  good  in  indulgence  if  it  be  reckoned,  one  of  the  many 
ways  in  which  God's  forgiveness  of  sin  can  be  proclaimed ; 
(2)  the  external  signs  of  sorrow  are  not  the  real  inward 
repentance,  nor  are  they  as  important  as  that  is,  and  no  per 
mission  to  neglect  the  outward  expression  can  permit  the 
neglect  of  true  repentance  ;  (3)  every  Christian  who  feels 
true  sorrow  for  sin  is  there  and  then  pardoned  by  God  for 
Christ's  sake  without  any  indulgence  ticket  or  other  human 
contrivance.  And  in  his  sermons  on  indulgence  Luther 
declared  that  repentance  consisted  in  contrition,  confession, 
and  absolution,  and  that  contrition  was  the  most  important, 
and  in  fact  the  occasion  of  the  other  two.  If  the  sorrow 
be  true  and  heartfelt,  confession  and  pardon  will  follow. 
The  inward  and  spiritual  fact  of  sorrow  for  sin,  he  thought, 
was  the  great  matter;  the  outward  signs  of  sorrow  were 
good  also,  but  God,  who  alone  can  pardon,  looks  to  the 
inward  state.  These  theses,  with  the  sermons  explaining 
them,  brought  Germany  face  to  face  with  the  reality  of 
blasphemy  in  the  indulgences.  Luther's  public  life  had 
opened  ;  the  Reformation  had  begun. 

Second  Period  (1517-1524). — Pilgrims  who  had  come  Luther 
to  Wittenberg  to  buy  indulgences  returned  with  the  theses  preach- 
of  Luther  in  their  hands,  and  with  the  impression  of  his  U1 
powerful  evangelical  teaching  in  their  hearts.  The  national 
mind  of  Germany  took  up  the  matter  with  a  moral  earnest 
ness  which  made  an  impression,  not  only  upon  the  princes, 
but  even  upon  bishops  and  monks.  At  first  it  seemed  as 
if  all  Germany  was  going  to  support  Luther.  The  traffic 
in  indulgences  had  been  so  shameless  that  all  good  people 
and  all  patriotic  Germans  had  been  scandalized.  Bub 
Luther  had  struck  a  blow  at  more  than  indulgences, 
although  he  scarcely  knew  it  at  the  time.  In  his  theses 
and  explanatory  sermons  he  had  declared  that  the  inward 
spiritual  facts  of  man's  religious  experience  were  of  infinitely 
more  value  than  their  expression  in  stereotyped  forms 
recognized  by  the  church,  and  he  had  made  it  plain  too 
that  in  such  a  solemn  thing  as  forgiveness  of  sin  man  could 
go  to  God  directly  without  human  mediation.  Pious 
Christians  since  the  day  of  Pentecost  had  thought  and  felt 
the  same,  and  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  men  and 
women  had  humbly  gone  to  God  for  pardon  trusting  in 
Christ.  They  had  found  the  pardon  they  sought,  and  their 
simple  Christian  experience  had  been  sung  in  the  hymns  of 
the  mediaeval  church,  had  found  expression  in  its  prayers, 
had  formed  the  heart  of  the  evangelical  preaching  of  the 
church,  and  had  stirred  the  masses  of  people  in  the  many 
revivals  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  those  pious  people, 
hymn-writers,  and  preachers  had  not  seen  that  this  inward 
experience  of  theirs  was  really  opposed  to  a  great  part  of 
the  ecclesiastical  system  of  their  day.  The  church  had 
set  such  small  store  by  that  inward  religious  experience 
that  the  common  speech  of  the  times  had  changed  the  plain 
meanings  of  the  words  "spiritual,"  "sacred,"  "holy."  A 
man  was  "  spiritual "  if  he  had  been  ordained  to  office 
in  the  church ;  money  was  "  spiritual "  if  it  had  been 
given  to  the  church ;  an  estate,  with  its  roads,  woodlands, 
fields,  was  "  spiritual "  or  "  holy "  if  it  belonged  to  a 
bishopric  or  abbey.  And  the  church  that  had  so  degraded 
the  meaning  of  "  spiritual  "  had  thrust  itself  and  its  external 
machinery  in  between  God  and  the  worshipper,  and  had 
proclaimed  that  no  man  could  draw  near  to  God  save 
through  its  appointed  ways  of  approach.  Confession  was 
to  be  made  to  God  through  the  priest ;  God  spoke  pardon 
only  in  the  priest's  absolution.  When  Luther  attacked 
indulgences  in  the  way  he  did  he  struck  at  this  whole 
system. 

Compelled  to  sxamine  the  ancient  history  of  the  church, 
he  soon  discovered  the  whole  tissue  of  fraud  and  imposture 
by  which  the  canon  law  had  from  the  9th  century  down- 


LUTHER 


73 


t 

mgsburg 
ef'ore  the 
.'gate. 


wards  been  foisted  upon  the  Christian  world.  There  is 
scarcely  any  essential  point  in  ancient  ecclesiastical  history 
bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  invocation  of  saints,  of 
clerical  priesthood,  of  episcopal  and  metropolitan  preten 
sions,  which  his  genius  did  not  discern  in  its  true 
light.  Whatever  Luther  denounced  as  fraud  or  abuse, 
from  its  contradiction  to  spiritual  worship,  may  be  said 
to  have  been  openly  or  tacitly  admitted  to  be  such.  But 
what  produced  the  greatest  effect  at  the  time  were  his 
short  popular  treatises,  exegetical  and  practical — his 
Interpretation  of  the  Magnificat  or  the  Canticle  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  his  Exposition  of  the  Ten  Commandments, 
and  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  latter  soon  found  its  way 
into  Italy,  although  without  Luther's  name,  and  has  never 
been  surpassed  either  in  genuine  Christian  thought  or  in 
style.  He  resolved  also  to  preach  throughout  Germany, 
and  in  1518  appeared  at  a  general  meeting  of  his  order  at 
Heidelberg.  There  he  held  a  public  disputation  on  certain 
theses  called  by  him  paradoxes,  in  which  he  strove  to 
make  apparent  the  contrast  between  the  external  view  of 
religion  taught  by  the  schoolmen  and  the  spiritual  view 
of  gospel  truth  based  upon  justifying  faith.  He  made 
many  disciples  on  this  occasion,  of  whom  perhaps  the 
most  notable  was  Martin  Bucer.  On  his  return  to 
Wittenberg  in  May  1518,  Luther  wrote  and  published  an 
able  and  moderate  exposition  of  the  theses,  and  sent  it  to 
some  of  the  German  bishops.  He  proclaimed  the  need  for 
a  thorough  reformation  of  the  church,  which  he  thought 
could  only  be  effected,  with  the  aid  of  God,  by  an  earnest 
co-operation  of  the  whole  of  Christendom.  This  energy 
awakened  opponents.  Conrad  Wimpina  at  Frankfort, 
Hoogstraten  at  Cologne,  Sylvester  Trierias  at  Rome,  and 
above  all  John  Eck,  an  old  fellow  student,  at  Ingolstadt, 
attacked  his  theses,  and  discovered  heresy  in  them.  The 
result  was  that  Luther  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
pope  at  Rome,  but  the  elector  of  Saxony  intervened,  and 
got  tho  matter  so  arranged  that  Luther  was  cited  to 
appear  before  the  pope's  legate  at  Augsburg. 

The  pope  was  unwilling  to  quarrel  with  Germany, 
where  the  whole  people  seemed  to  be  supporting  Luther, 
and  the  cardinal  legate  James  de  Vio  of  Gaeta,  commonly 
called  Cajetan,  was  told  to  be  conciliatory.  Luther  went  to 
Augsburg  on  foot,  and  presented  himself  before  the  legate, 
but  the  interview  was  not  a  successful  one.  The  cardinal 
began  by  brow-beating  the  monk,  and  ended  by  being 
somewhat  afraid  of  him.  "  I  can  dispute  no  longer  with 
this  beast,"  he  said ;  "  it  has  two  wicked  eyes  and 
marvellous  thoughts  in  its  head."  Luther  could  not 
respect  either  the  learning  or  the  judgment  of  Cajetan. 
He  left  Augsburg  by  stealth,  afraid  of  capture,  condemned, 
but  appealing  "from  the  pope  ill-informed  to  the  pope 
to-be-better-informed."  On  his  return  to  Wittenberg  he 
found  the  elector  in  great  anxiety  of  mind,  in  consequence 
of  an  imperious  letter  from  the  cardinal,  and  offered  to 
leave  Saxony  for  France.  The  elector,  however,  allowed 
him  to  remain,  and  the  pope  sent  another  legate  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  Germany.  This  was  Carl  von  Miltitz,  a 
native  of  Saxony,  a  man  of  the  world,  and  no  great 
theologian.  He  resolved  to  meet  Luther  privately,  and 
did  so  in  the  house  of  Spalatin,  court  preacher  to  the 
elector  of  Saxony.  In  his  interview  with  Cajetan  Luther 
had  refused  to  retract  two  propositions — that  the  treasury 
of  indulgences  is  not  filled  with  the  merits  of  Christ,  and 
that  he  who  receives  the  sacrament  must  have  faith  in  the 
grace  offered  to  him.  Miltitz  made  no  such  demands. 
He  apparently  gave  up  Tetzel  and  the  indulgences,  agreed 
with  much  of  Luther's  theology,  but  insisted  that  he  had 
not  been  respectful  to  the  pope,  and  that  such  conduct 
weakened  the  authority  which  rightly  belonged  to  the 
church.  He  wished  Luther  to  write  to  the  pope  and 


apologize.  Luther  consented.  It  was  further  arranged 
that  both  parties  were  to  cease  from  writing  or  preaching 
on  the  controverted  matters,  and  that  the  pope  was  to 
commission  a  body  of  learned  theologians  to  investigate. 
Luther  accordingly  wrote  to  the  pope,  telling  him  that  he 
"  freely  confessed  that  the  authority  of  the  church  was 
superior  to  everything,  and  that  nothing  in  heaven  or  on 
earth  can  be  preferred  before  it  save  only  Jesus  Christ, 
who  is  Lord  over  all."  This  was  in  March  1519.  Mean 
while  Luther  had  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general 
council  to  be  held  in  Germany.  In  the  end  of  1518  a 
papal  bull  concerning  indulgences  had  appeared;  confirming 
the  old  doctrine,  without  any  reference  to  the  late  dispute. 
The  years  1519,  1520,  1521  were  a  time  of  fierce  but 
triumphant  struggle  with  the  hitherto  irresistible  Church 
of  Rome,  soon  openly  supported  by  the  empire.  The  first 
of  these  years  passed  in  public  conferences  and  disputations. 
Luther  had  promised  Miltitz  to  refrain  from  controversy, 
on  the  understanding  that  his  adversaries  did  not  attack 
him,  and  he  kept  his  word.  But  his  old  antagonist  John  Leipsic 
Eck  published  thirteen  theses  attacking  Luther,  and  Jisputo- 
challenged  Andrew  Bodenstein  of  Carlstadt,  a  friend  and  tlon' 
colleague  of  Luther,  to  a  public  disputation.  Luther 
instantly  replied  to  Eck's  theses,  and  the  disputation 
between  Carlstadt  and  Eck  was  immediately  followed  by 
one  between  Eck  and  Luther.  In  this  famous  Leipsic 
disputation  the  controversy  took  a  new  shape.  It  was  no 
longer  a  theological  dispute  ;  it  became  a  conflict  between 
two  opposing  sets  of  principles  affecting  the  whole  round 
of  church  life.  Luther  and  Eck  began  about  indulgences 
and  penance,  but  the  debate  soon  turned  on  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  Church  and  of  the  pope.  Eck  maintained 
the  superiority  of  the.  Roman  Church  and  of  the  pope  as 
successor  of  St  Peter  and  vicar-general  of  Christ.  His 
argument  was  "  no  pope  no  church."  Luther  denied  the 
superiority  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  supported  his  denial 
by  the  testimony  of  eleven  centuries,  by  the  decrees  of 
Nicaea,  by  the  Holy  Scriptures.  He  maintained  that  the 
Greek  Church  was  part  of  the  church  of  Christ,  else 
Athanasius,  Basil,  and  the  Gregories  were  outside 
Christianity.  The  pope  has  more  need  of  the  church,  he 
said,  than  the  church  has  of  the  pope.  Eck  retorted  that 
these  had  been  the  arguments  of  Wickliffe  and  of  Huss,  and 
that  they  had  been  condemned  at  the  council  of  Constance. 
Luther  refused  to  admit  that  the  condemnation  was  right ; 
Eck  refused  to  debate  with  an  opponent  who  would  not 
abide  by  the  decision  of  oecumenical  councils  ;  and  so  the 
disputation  ended.  But  Luther  immediately  afterwards 
completed  his  argument  and  published  it.  He  asserted 
that  he  did  not  mean  to  deny  the  bishop  of  Rome's 
primacy,  provided  the  pope  kept  his  own  place  as  servant 
of  the  church,  but  that  he  did  mean  to  deny  that  there 
could  be  no  church  apart  from  the  pope.  The  church,  he 
said,  is  the  communion  of  the  faithful,  and  consists  of  the 
elect,  and  so  never  can  lack  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
who  is  not  always  with  popes  and  councils.  This  church, 
he  declared,  is  invisible,  but  real,  and  every  layman  who  is 
in  it  and  has  Holy  Scripture  and  holds  by  it  is  more  to  be 
believed  than  popes  or  councils,  who  do  not.  This  Leipsic 
disputation  had  very  important  consequences.  On  the  one 
hand,  Eck  and  his  associates  felt  that  Luther  must  now  be 
put  down  by  force,  and  pressed  for  a  papal  bull  to  condemn 
him ;  and  Luther  himself,  on  the  other  hand,  felt  for  the 
first  time  what  great  consequences  lay  in  his  opposition  to 
the  indulgences.  He  saw  that  his  Augustinian  theology, 
with  its  recognition  of  the  heinousness  of  sin,  and  of  the 
need  of  the  sovereign  grace  of  God,  was  incompatible  with 
the  whole  round  of  mediaeval  ceremonial  life,  proved  it 
to  be  impossible  for  men  to  live  perfectly  holy  lives,  and  so 
made  saints  and  saint  worship  and  relics  and  pilgrimages 

XV.  —  10 


74 


impossible  tilings.  He  saw  the  uselessness  of  the  monastic 
life,  with  its  vigils  and  fasts  and  scourgings.  These  things 
were  not  helps,  he  saw,  but  hindrances  to  the  true  religious 
life.  The  Leipsic  disputation  made  Luther  feel  that  he 
had  finally  broken  with  Rome,  and  it  made  all  Germany 
see  it  too,  and  raised  the  popular  enthusiasm  to  a  white 
heat.  The  people  of  the  towns  declared  their  sympathy 
with  the  bold  monk.  Ulrich  von  Hutten  and  the  German 
humanists  saw  that  this  was  more  than  a  monkish  quarrel, 
and  recognized  Luther  as  their  leader.  Franz  von  Sickingen 
and  the  free  knights  hailed  him  as  a  useful  ally.  Even 
the  poor  down-trodden  peasants  hoped  that  he  might  be  a 
luckier  leader  than  Joss  Fritz,  and  that  he  might  help 
them  to  free  themselves  from  the  unbearable  miseries  of 
their  lot.  Luther  became  the  leader  of  the  German  nation 
after  the  Leipsic  disputation. 

During  1520  the  first  great  political  crisis  occurred,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  death  of  Maximilian,  and  ended  fatally,  in 
consequence  of  the  want  of  patriotic  and  political  wisdom 
among  the  German  princes.  Ranke  has  pointed  out  the 
political  elements  which  then  existed  for  creating  a 
Germany  as  free  and  independent  as  France  or  England ; 
and  Justus  Moser  of  Osnabruck  had  long  before  truly 
declared,  "  If  the  emperor  at  that  time  had  destroyed  the 
feudal  system,  the  deed  would  have  been,  according  to  the 
spirit  in  which  it  was  done,  the  grandest  or  the  blackest 
in  the  history  of  the  world."  Moser  means  that  if  the 
emperor  had  embraced  the  Reformed  faith,  and  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  lower  nobility  and  cities,  united 
in  one  body  as  the  lower  house  of  a  German  parliament, 
this  act  would  have  saved  Germany.  Probably  some  such 
idea  was  in  the  mind  of  the  archbishop  of  Treves  when  he 
proposed  that  Frederick,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  should  be 
chosen  emperor.  Frederick  might  have  carried  out  this 
policy,  just  -because,  if  elected,  he  had  nothing  to  rely 
upon  except  the  German  nation,  then  more  numerous  and 
powerful  than  it  has  been  since ;  but  he  had  not  the 
courage  to  accept  a  dignity  which  he  supposed  to  require 
for  its  support  a  more  powerful  house  than  his  own. 
Charles,  the  son  of  Maximilian,  was  elected  emperor,  and 
that  election  meant  the  continuation  of  a  mediaeval  policy 
in  Germany. 

Meanwhile  Luther  was  at  Wittenberg  continuing  his 
course  of  preaching,  lecturing,  and  writing.  The  number 
of  matriculated  students  had  increased  from  232  in  1517 
to  458  in  1519,  and  to  579  in  1520;  but  large  numbsrs 
besides  these  came  to  hear  Luther.  The  study  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  was  diligently  carried  on,  and  the  university 
was  in  a  most  flourishing  state.  Some  of  the  finest  produc 
tions  of  Luther's  pen  belong  to  this  period, — his  Sermons 
on  the  sacraments,  on  excommunication,  on  the  priesthood, 
on  good  works,  his  Address  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the 
German  Nation  on  the  Reformation  of  Christendom,  and 
The  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church.  The  address  to 
the  German  nobles,  published  on  June  26,  1520,  created  a 
great  deal  of  excitement  not  only  in  Germany  but  beyond 
it.  It  was  this  appeal  which  first  made  Zwingli  feel  in 
sympathy  with  Luther,  who  showed  in  this  little  book  that 
the  Romish  doctrine  of  two  estates,  one  sscular  and  the 
other  spiritual,  was  simply  a  wall  raised  round  the  church 
to  prevent  reform.  All  Christians  are  spiritual,  he  said, 
and  there  is  no  difference  among  them.  The  secular  power 
is  of  God  as  well  as  the  spiritual,  and  has  rule  over  all 
Christians  without  exception, — pope,  bishops,  monks,  and 
nuns.  He  also  appealed  to  the  people  to  prevent  so  much 
money  going  out  of  the  kingdom  to  Italy.  "  Why,"  he 
said,  "should  300,000  florins  be  sent  every  year  from 
Germany  to  Rome  ? "  His  address  raised  the  cry  of 
Germany  for  the  Germans,  civil  government  uncontrolled 
by  ecclesiastics,  a  married  clergy,  while  he  called  for  a 


national  system  of  education  as  the  foundation  of  a  better 
order  of  things.  The  most  important  work  of  the  time, 
however,  was  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church  of 
God  (October  1520),  in  which  he  boldy  attacked  the  papacy 
in  its  principles.  The  main  thought  in  the  book  is 
expressed  in  the  title.  The  catholic  church  had  been 
taken  into  bondage  by  the  papacy,  as  the  Jewish  people 
were  taken  to  Babylon,  and  ought  to  be  brought  back  into 
freedom.  Luther  described  the  sacraments,  real  and  pre 
tended,  and  showed  how  each  had  been  carried  into  cap 
tivity  and  ought  to  be  delivered.  He  concluded  in  a  very 
characteristic  fashion.  "  I  hear  that  bulls  and  other  papis 
tical  things  have  been  prepared,  in  which  I  am  urged  to 
recant  or  be  proclaimed  a  heretic.  If  that  be  true,  I  wish 
this  little  book  to  be  part  of  my  future  recantation."  The 
printing  press  sent  thousands  of  these  books  through 
Germany,  and  the  people  awaited  the  bull,  armed  before 
hand  against  its  arguments.  The  bull  was  published  at 
Rome  on  July  15,  1520.  It  accused  Luther  of  holding 
the  opinions  of  Huss,  and  condemned  him.  Eck  brought 
it  to  Leipsic,  and  published  it  there  in  October.  It  was 
posted  up  in  various  German  towns,  and  usually  the  citizens 
and  the  students  tore  it  down.  At  last  it  reached  Luther. 
He  answered  it  in  a  pamphlet,  in  which  he  called  it  the 
execrable  bull  of  Antichrist,  and  at  last  he  proclaimed  at 
Wittenberg  that  he  would  publicly  burn  it.  On  December 
10,  1520,  at  the  head  of  a  procession  of  professors  and 
students,  Luther  passed  out  of  the  university  gates  to  the 
market-place,  where  a  bonfire  had  been  laid.  One  of  the 
professors  lighted  the  fuel,  and  Luther  threw  the  bull  on 
the  flames  ;  a  companion  flung  after  it  a  copy  of  the  canon 
law.  Germany  was  henceforth  to  be  ruled  by  the  law  of 
the  land,  and  not  by  the  law  of  Rome.  The  news  flashed 
over  all  Germany,  kindling  stern  joy.  Rome  had  shot  its 
last  bolt  :  if  Luther  was  to  be  crushed,  only  the  emperor 
could  do  it.  On  December  17th  Luther  drew  up  before  a 
notary  and  five  witnesses  a  solemn  protest,  in  which  he 
appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council.  This  protest, 
espscially  when  we  take  it  along  with  other  future  acts  of 
Luther,  meant  a  great  deal  more  than  many  historians 
have  discerned.  It  was  the  declaration  that  the  Christian 
community  is  wider  than  the  Roman  Church,  and  was  an 
appeal  from  later  mediaeval  to  earlier  mediaeval  ideas  of 
catholicity.  In  the  times  immediately  preceding  the 
Reformation,  the  common  description  of  Christian  society 
was  social  life  in  communion  with  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
but  in  the  earlier  Middle  Ages  Christian  society  had  also 
been  defined  to  be  social  life  within  the  holy  Roman 
empire.  For  the  Roman  empire  had  imposed  on  all  its 
subjects  a  creed,  and  to  that  extent  had  made  itself  a 
Christian  community.  The  oecumenical  council  was  the 
ecclesiastical  assembly  and  final  court  of  appeal  for  this 
society,  whose  limits  were  determined  by  the  boundaries 
of  the  mediaeval  empire,  and  Luther  by  this  appeal  not 
only  declared  that  he  could  be  a  catholic  Christian  without 
being  in  communion  with  Rome,  but  secured  an  ecclesia 
stical  standing  ground  for  himself  and  his  followers  which 
the  law  could  not  help  recognizing.  It  was  an  appeal  from 
the  catholic  church  defined  ecclesiastically  to  the  catholic 
church  defined  politically,  and  foreshadowed  the  future 
political  relations  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

The  pope  had  appealed  to  the  emperor  to  crush  heresy 
in  Germany,  and  Charles  V.,  with  his  Spanish  training  and 
his  dreams  of  a  restored  mediaeval  empire,  where  he  might 
reign  as  vicar  of  God  circa  civilia,  had  promised  his  aid. 
He  had  declared,  however,  that  he  must  pay  some  regard 
to  the  views  of  Frederick  of  Saxony,  from  whom  he  had 
received  the  imperial  crown,  and  had  in  the  end  resolved 
to  summon  Luther  before  the  diet  to  be  held  at  Worms. 
Thu  diet  was  opened  by  Charles  in  January  1521,  and  the 


LutLe: 
excom 


He 
l>ums 

*  e 


iefore  papal  nuncio  Hieronymus  Alexander  (afterwards  archbishop 
he  of  Brindisi  and  cardinal)  urged  first  privately  and  then 
mperor  pU]Jjic}y  jn  the  diet  that  Luther  should  be  condemned  un- 
Vorms.  heard,  as  one  already  tried  and  convicted  by  the  papal 
bull.  He  threatened  the  Germans  with  extermination,  it 
is  said,  in  case  of  their  refusal  to  accede  to  his  requests, — 
"  We  shall  excite  the  one  to  fight  against  the  other,  that 
all  may  perish  in  their  own  blood," — a  threat  to  which  the 
whole  subsequent  history  of  Germany  offers  the  commen 
tary.  But  the  princes  had  their  own  quarrel  with  Rome, 
and  urged  besides  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  condemn  a 
man  unheard  and  untried.  A  committee  appointed  by 
the  diet  presented  a  list  of  one  hundred  grievances  of 
the  German  nation  against  Rome.  This  startled  the 
emperor,  w.ho,  instead  of  ordering  Luther's  books  to  be 
burned,  issued  only  a  provisional  order  that  they  should 
be  delivered  to  the  magistrate.  He  then  sent  to  summon 
Luther  before  him,  and  granted  him  a  safe  conduct  to  and 
from  the  diet.  In  April  Luther  set  out  for  Worms.  Before 
loaving  Wittenberg  he  had  devised  with  his  friend  Lucas 
Cranach  the  artist  what  he  called  "  a  good  book  for  the 
liity,"  a  series  of  woodcuts  depicting  contrasts  between 
Christ  and  the  pope,  with  explanations  in  pithy  German: — 
Christ  washing  the  disciples'  feet  on  one  page,  the  pope 
holding  out  his  toe  to  be  kissed,  on  the  other;  Christ 
bearing  his  cross,  the  pope  carried  in  state  through  Rome 
on  men's  shoulders  ;  Christ  driving  money-changers  out  of 
the  temple,  the  pope  selling  indulgences,  with  piles  of  money 
before  him;  and  so  on.  Luther  went  to  Worms,  believing 
that  he  was  going  to  his  death.  Everywhere  on  the  road 
he  saw  the  imperial  edict  against  his  books  posted  up,  yet 
his  journey  was  in  some  sort  a  triumphal  progress ;  the 
people  came  out  in  crowds  to  meet  him,  and  at  Erfurt  the 
herald  gave  way  to  the  universal  request,  and,  against  his 
instructions,  permitted  Luther  to  preach.  On  the  16th 
Luther  entered  the  imperial  city  amidst  an  immense  con 
course  of  people.  Next  day  he  was  brought  before  the 
diet.  When  the  hour  approached  he  fell  on  his  knees,  and 
uttered  in  great  agony  a  prayer  such  as  can  only  be  pro 
nounced  by  a  man  filled  with  the  spirit  of  Him  who  prayed 
in  Gethsemane.  When  he  appeared  before  the  diet  he  was 
asked  by  John  Eck,  an  official  of  the  archbishop  of  Treves 
(to  be  distinguished  from  Eck  the  theologian),  whether  the 
books  piled  on  a  table  were  his,  and  whether  he  would 
retract  what  was  written  in  them.  Luther  acknowledged 
his  writings,  and  requested  that  as  the  matter  written  con 
cerned  the  highest  of  all  subjects,  the  word  of  God  and  the 
welfare  of  souls,  he  might  have  time  for  consideration 
before  he  answered  the  second  question.  His  request  was 
granted,  and  he  retired.  Luther's  resolution  had  been 
taken  before  he  appeared  at  the  diet ;  he  only  desired  to 
convince  friends  as  well  as  foes  that  he  did  not  act  with 
precipitation  at  so  decisive  a  moment.  The  next  day  he 
employed  in  prayer  and  meditation,  making  a  solemn  vow 
upon  a  volume  of  Scripture  to  remain  faithful  to  the 
gospel,  should  he  have  to  seal  his  confession  with  his  blood. 
When  he  was  again  brought  before  the  diet,  he  answered 
at  great  length,  dividing  his  writings  into  three  kinds  : — 
(1)  those  in  which  he  had  written  about  faith  and  morals 
in  such  fashion  that  even  his  opponents  admitted  that 
what  he  had  said  was  worth  reading  :  he  could  not  retract 
these ;  (2)  those  in  which  he  had  condemned  the  papacy 
and  popish  doings,  which  had  ruined  Christendom  body 
and  soul :  to  retract  these  would  be  mean  and  wicked,  and 
lie  would  not ;  (3)  those  in  which  he  had  attacked  private 
persons  with  perhaps  more  vehemence  than  was  right :  he 
would  not  retract,  but  would  readily  listen  to  any  one  who 
pointed  out  errors.  He  spoke  in  German  with  earnestness 
and  force,  but  the  emperor  and  his  followers  scarcely 
understood  him,  and  he  was  asked  to  repeat  his  answer  in 


75 

Latin.  He  did  so,  and  the  papal  party  were  irritated  ; 
the  official  declared  that  they  were  not  there  to  make  dis 
tinctions  or  to  discuss  things  which  had  been  long  ago 
settled  by  councils;  let  the  accused  say  whether  he  recanted 
or  not.  Luther  answered,  "Well  then,  if  your  imperial 
majesty  and  your  graces  require  a  plain  answer,  I  will  give 
you  one  of  that  kind  without  horns  and  teeth.  It  is  this. 
I  must  be  convinced  either  by  the  witness  of  Scripture  or 
by  clear  arguments,  for  I  do  not  trust  either  pope  or 
councils  by  themselves,  since  it  is  manifest  that  they  have 
often  erred  and  contradicted  themselves — for  I  am  bound 
by  the  Holy  Scriptures  which  I  have  quoted,  and  my  con 
science  is  held  by  the  word  of  God.  I  cannot  and  will 
not  retract  anything,  for  to  act  against  conscience  is  un 
safe  and  unholy.  So  help  me  God.  Amen."  Eck  asked 
him  whether  he  actually  meant  to  say  that  general  councils 
had  erred.  He  answered  that  lie  declared,  and  that  openly, 
that  councils  had  erred  several  times,  that  the  council 
of  Constance  had  erred.  Eck  replied  that  he  surely  did 
not  mean  to  say  that  general  councils  had  erred.  Luther 
persisted  that  he  could  prove  that  they  had  erred  in  many 
places.  The  emperor  made  a  sign  to  end  the  matter,  and 
Luther  said,  "  I  can  do  nought  else.  Here  stand  I.  God 
help  me.  Amen."  He  went  back  to  his  lodgings  in  deep 
depression  of  spirit,  but  was  comforted  on  learning  that 
the  elector  had  told  Spalatin,  "  Doctor  Martin  has  spoken 
well  in  Latin  and  in  German  before  the  emperor  and  all 
the  princes  and  estates  of  the  empire ;  only  he  is  too  keen 
for  me."  Luther's  answer  created  very  various  feelings 
among  those  who  heard  him.  The  Italians  and  Spaniards 
wished  the  safe  conduct  revoked,  and  Luther  burnt  at 
once.  Most  of  the  Germans  resolved  to  protect  him  at 
all  hazards.  The  emperor  deliberated  for  a  day,  and  then 
declared  that  he  meant  to  permit  Luther  to  return  safely 
from  the  council,  but  that  his  opinions  were  to  be  con 
demned,  and  all  who  clung  to  them  punished  for  the 
future.  But  the  proposal  to  cancel  the  safe  conduct  had 
roused  the  people.  There  were  threatenings  of  insurrec 
tions  of  the  peasants,  and  of  Sickingen  and  the  knights ; 
and  the  emperor,  to  allay  the  feeling,  resolved  that  three 
days  should  be  given  to  Luther  to  reconsider  what  he  had 
said.  Theologians  came  to  argue  with  him,  and  to  induce 
him  to  make  some  recantation,  but  in  vain.  At  last  the 
edict  of  the  diet  was  pronounced,  in  which  Luther  was 
condemned  in  the  severest  terms,  and  placed  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire.  This  meant  that  when  his  safe  conduct 
expired  he  was  an  outlaw,  and  that  all  people  were  for 
bidden  to  give  him  food  or  fire  or  shelter.  His  books 
were  to  be  burnt,  his  goods  confiscated,  and  his  adherents 
punished.  Whoever  disobeyed  the  edict  incurred  the  ban 
of  the  empire. 

Frederick  the  elector  of  Saxony  thought  that  Luther's  At  the 
life  was  no  longer  safe,  as  in  twenty-one  days  his  safe  Wurt- 
conduct  would  expire.  Luther  was  hurried  away  from  s' 
Worms,  and  as  he  travelled  back  to  Wittenberg  he  was 
stopped  near  Eisenach  by  a  band  of  armed  knights,  and 
carried  to  the  fortified  castle  of  the  Wartburg  above 
Eisenach  by  Frederick's  orders.  The  elector's  fears,  as 
matters  turned  out,  were  exaggerated.  Germany  was  in 
no  mood  to  give  Luther  up,  and  there  were  threatenings 
of  risings  when  he  disnppeared,  only  appeased  when  it  was 
whispered  about  that  he  was  in  friendly  keeping.  Luther 
remained  at  the  Wartburg,  dressed  as  a  knight,  ordered  to 
let  his  beard  grow,  and  bearing  the  name  Junker  George, 
for  ten  months,  and  made  use  of  his  enforced  leisure  to 
begin  what  was  perhaps  his  greatest  literary  work,  his 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  from  the  original  texts. 
The  New  Testament  was  almost  entirely  his  own  work. 
He  used  for  the  text  Erasmus's  fourth  edition,  and  took 
incredible  pains  with  his  work.  Some  of  his  MS.  still 


7(5 


L  U  T  H  E  K 


survives,   and    shows  that   he   corrected   and   recorrected 
with  great  pains.     Some  passages  were  altered  at  least 
fifteen    times.      He    often    felt    at    a   loss   for   want   of 
technical    knowledge,    and    laid    all    his    friends    under 
contribution.     Thus,   when  in  difficulty  about  the  trans 
lation    of   Rev.    xxi.    he    wrote   to   Spalatin    to   ask   for 
names   and  descriptions  of  all  the  precious  stones  men 
tioned.     When  engaged  in  the  translation  of  the  descrip 
tions  of  the  slaughter  of  beasts  for  sacrifice,  he  got  a  butcher 
to  kill   some   sheep  for  him,  that   he  might  learn    what 
every  part  of  a  sheep  was  called.     His  aim  was  to  re 
produce  the  tone  and  spirit  of  the  original  as  far  as  he 
possibly  could.     No  fine  courtly  words,  he  said  to  Spalatin  ; 
this  book  can  only  be   explained  in  a  simple  popular  style. 
It  must  be  understood  by  the  mother  in  the  house,  by  tlie 
children  in  the  streets,  and  by  the  "  common  man  in  the 
market."     The  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  first 
published  on  September  21,  1522,  and  a  second  edition  ap 
peared  in  October.     By  choosing  the  Franconian  dialect  in 
use  in  the  imperial  chancery,  Luther  made  himself  intelli 
gible  to  those  whose  vernacular  dialect  was  High  German 
or  Low  German,  and  his  Bible  is  still  the  standard  of  the 
German    tongue,   and    has    preserved   unity  of   language, 
literature,  and  thought  to  the  German  nation  during  its 
political    disintegration.      The    translation    of    the    Old 
Testament,  begun  in  the  same  year,  was  a   much   more 
tedious    task,   and    Luther    was    assisted    in    it    by   what 
Matthesius  calls  a  private  Sanhedrim.     The  friends  met 
once    a    week,  several    hours    before    supper,  in    the    old 
Augustinian  monastery  at  Wittenberg,  which  had  become 
Luther's  house.     Bugeuhagen,  Justus  Jonas,  Melanchthon, 
Aurogallus,  Roser,  and  several  Jewish  rabbis  made  the 
"  Sanhedrim."     Luther  thus  describes  the  work  :  "  We  are 
labouring  hard  to  bring  out  the  prophets  in  the  mother- 
tongue.     Ach  Gott !  what  a  great  and  difficult  work  it  is  to 
make  the  Hebrew  writers  speak  German !    They  resist  it  so, 
and  are  unwilling  to  give  up  their  Hebrew  existence  and 
become  like  Germans."     At  the  Wartburg  Luther  was  ill 
in  health  and  somewhat  troubled  in  mind.     He  had  been 
ill  before  he  was  summoned  to  Worms,  and  his  long  journey 
in    the  waggon    with  its    cloth    tent,    the    excitement   at 
Worms,  and  the  solitude  at  the  Wartburg  had  enfeebled 
him ;  but   his  literary  activity  was  untiring.     He  wrote 
short    commentaries    on    the    G8th    Psalm    and  on    other 
portions  of  Scripture,  and  a  set  of  homilies  intended  to 
guide  evangelical  preachers,  the  Kirchen-postille.     He  also 
wrote  one  or  two  short  treatises  on  worship,  on  the  mass, 
on  confession,  and  on  monkish  vows,  intended  to  guide  the 
reformed  churches  in  the  rejection  of  superstitious  usages. 
Up  to  this  time  there  had  been  no  change  in  the  church  ser 
vices.     The  true  doctrine  of  the  gospel  had  been  preached 
in  Germany,  and  Romish  rites  and  ceremonies  had  been 
exhibited  as  abuses,  but  not  -a  single  word  or  portion  of 
these  ceremonies  had  been  changed,  and  Luther  felt  that 
the  time  had  come  to  bring  the  preaching  and  the  usages 
into   harmony  with  each  other.     In  the   midst  of   these 
labours  news  came  to  him  that  Germany  was  threatened 
with  a  new  sale  of  indulgences.     The  cardinal  archbishop 
of    Mainz,    Albert    of    Brandenburg,  unable    to    pay    the 
26,000  ducats  due  to  Rome  for  his  pallium,  had  resolved 
to  raise  the  money  by  indulgences.     Luther  wrote  a  fierce 
tractate  Against  the  New  Idol  at  Halle.     The  archbishop 
getting    word    of    this,  sent  to  Frederick   asking  him  to 
restrain    Luther    from    attacking    a    brother-elector,    and 
Frederick  wished  Luther  to    desist.     He  was  indignant, 
but  at  the  request  of  Melanchthon  he  agreed  to  lay  the 
treatise    aside    until    he  had    written  to  the    archbishop. 
"  Put  down  the  idol  within  a  fortnight,  or  I  shall  attack 
you   publicly,"  he  wrote ;   and   the   archbishop  in  reply 
thanked  Luther  for  his  Christian  brotherly  reproof,  and 


promised,  "  with  the  h&lp  of  God,  to  live  henceforth  as  a 
pious  bishop  and  Christian  prince." 

Luther's  absence  from    his  congregation,   his  students,  Back 
and  his  friends  and  books  at  Wittenberg  weighed  heavily  Witte 
upon    him,  and  he  began    to  hear   disquieting    rumours. 
Carlstadt  and  other  friends  at  Wittenberg  were  urging  on 
the  Reformation  at  too  rapid  a  rate.     Their  idea  was  that 
everything  in  worship  not  expressly  enjoined  in  the  Bible 
should  at  once  be  abolished.     The   churches  were  to  be 
stripped  of  crucifixes,  images  of  saints,  and  the  ritual  of 
the   mass ;  the   festivals    of    the   Christian    year   were  to 
be  neglected,  the  monastic  life  put  down  by  force ;   and 
some  even  wished  it  ordained  that  all  clergymen  should 
be  married.     To  Luther  all  this  seemed  dangerous,  and 
sure  to  provoke    a  reaction  ;  the   changes    insisted    upon 
were  to  him  matters  of  indifference,  which  might  be  left  to 
the    individual    to    do    or    leave    undone    as    he    pleased. 
Auricular  confession,  the  reception  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
under  both  forms,  pictures  in  churches,  the  observance  of 
festivals  and  fasts,  and  the  monastic  life  were  adiaphora. 
He  wrote  earnestly  warning  his  friends  against  rashness 
and  violence,  and  he  was  anxious  and  distressed.     Still  he 
held  out  patiently  till  events  occurred  which  called  for  his 
presence.     Certain  men  claiming  to  be  prophets,  Nicolaus 
Storch,    a    weaver,    and    his    disciple    Thomas    Miinzer, 
belonging  to  the  village  of  Zwickau,  near  the  Erzgebirge 
on  the  borders  of  Bohemia,  preached  wildly  a  thorough 
going  reformation  in  the  church  and  the  banishment  of 
priests  and  Bibles.      All  believers  were  priests,  they  said, 
and  all  the  faithful  had  the  Holy  Spirit  within  them,  and 
did  not  need  any  such  external  rule  as  Holy  Scripture. 
They  were  banished  from  Zwickau,  and  came  to  Wittenberg, 
where  Carlstadt  joined  them.     Fired  by  their  preaching, 
the    people  tore  down  the   images  in    the    churches    and 
indulged  in  various  kinds  of  rioting.     Luther  felt  he  could 
remain    no    longer   in    hiding.     He   wrote  to  the  elector 
telling  him  that  he  must  quit  the  Wartburg,  and  at  the 
same  time  declaring  that  he  left  at  his  own  peril.      "  You 
wish    to  know  what  to  do    in    the    present    troublesome 
circumstances,"  he  said.      "Do  nothing.     As  for  myself, 
let  the  command  of  the  emperor  be  executed  in  town  or 
country.      Do  not  resist  if  they  come  to  seize  and  kill  me  ; 
only  let  the  doors  remain  open  for  the  preaching  of  the 
word  of  God."      He    was  warned   that  Duke  George  of 
Saxony,  a  violent  enemy  of  the  Reformation,  was  waiting 
to  execute  the  sentence  of  the  ban.      "  If  things  were  at 
Leipsic  as  they  are  at  Wittenberg,"  he  said,  "  I  would  go 
there,  if  it  rained  Duke  Georges  for  nine  days  running, 
and  every  one  of  them  nine  times  as  fierce  as  he."     He 
left  the  Wartburg,  suddenly  appearing  in  Wittenberg  on 
March  3,  1522,  and   plunged  at   once   into  the   midst  of 
struggles  very  different  from  those  which  he  had  hitherto  so 
victoriously  overcome.     He  found  things  in  a  worse  state 
than  he  had  feared ;  even  Melanchthon  had  been  carried 
away.     Luther  preached  almost  daily  for  eight  consecutive 
days  against  Carlstadt  and  the  fanatics  from  Zwickau,  and 
in  the  end  he  prevailed  and  the  danger  was  averted.     His 
theme  was    that  violence  does  no  good  to  God's    word ; 
there  are  in  religion  matters  of  indifference.     "  The  Word 
created  heaven  and  earth  and  all  things ;  the  same  Word 
must  also  now  create,  and  not  we  poor  sinners.     Summa 
summarum,  I  will  preach  it,  I  will  talk  of  it,  I  will  write 
about  it,  but  I  will  not  use  force  or  compulsion  with  any 
one."     "  In  this  life  every  one  must  not  do  what  he  has  a 
right  to  do,  but  must  forego  his  rights,  and  consider  what 
is  useful  to  his  brother.     Do  not  make  a  '  must  be '  out  of 
a  '  may  be,'  as  you  have  now  been  doing,  that  you  may  not 
have  to  answer  for  those  whom  you  have  misled  by  your 
uncharitable  liberty."     Storch  and  Miinzer,  sincere  though 
misguided  men,  sought  an  interview  with  him.     They  laid 


L  U  T  H  E  11 


77 


it  at 


their  claims  for  support  before  him ;  they  said  that  they 
were  inspired  and  could  prove  it,  for  they  would  tell  him 
what  then  passed  through  his  mind.  Luther  challenged 
them  to  the  proof.  "  You  think  in  your  own  heart  that 
my  doctrine  is  true,"  said  one  of  them  impressively.  "  Get 
thee  behind  me,  Satan,"  exclaimed  Luther,  and  dismissed 
them.  "  They  were  quite  right,"  he  said  to  his  friends 
afterwards  ;  "  that  thought  crossed  my  mind  about  some 
of  their  assertions.  A  spirit  evidently  was  in  them  ;  but 
what  could  it  be  but  the  evil  one?" 

ither  When  Charles  V.  had  laid  Luther  under  the  ban  of  the 
d  the  empire,  he  had  undoubtedly  been  greatly  influenced  by 
political  considerations.  Francis  I.  of  France  and  Charles 
of  Spain  were  rivals,  and  the  whole  of  the  European  policy 
of  the  time  turns  on  this  rivalry.  The  opponents  schemed 
to  attract  to  themselves  and  to  divert  from  their  neighbour 
the  two  outside  powers  of  England  and  the  papacy,  and  in 

1521  it  was  the  policy  of  Charles  to  win  alliance    with 
the   pope.      The    Germans    saw   that    they    were    being 
sacrificed    in    this  game  of    statecraft,  and  there  was  no 
great  willingness  even  among  Roman  Catholics  to  put  the 
edict  of  Worms  in  force.     Luther  at  the  Wartburg  and  at 
Wittenberg    was    protected     by    the    national    feeling    of 
Germany  from   attack.     The    diet  of  the  empire  met  in 

1522  at  Nuremberg,  and  the  new  imperial  council,  which 
ruled  in  the  emperor's  absence,  and  very  fairly  represented 
the  popular  feeling  in  Germany,  was  in  no  mood  to  yield 
to  the  papacy.     Leo  X.  had  died,  and  his  successor  Adrian 
VI.,  an  orthodox  Dominican  and  an  advocate  for  reforma 
tion  in  the  cloisters  and  in  the  lives  of  the  clergy,  proposed 
to  begin  reformation  by  crushing  the  German  heresy.     He 
instructed  his  nuncio  to  the  diet  to  demand  the  execution 
of  the  edict  of  Worms,     The  imperial  council  refused  until 
the   grievances  of   Germany   were  heard   and  redressed. 
They  spoke  of  concordats  broken  and  papal  pledges  unful 
filled,  and  finally  they  demanded  a  free  oecumenical  council 
to  be  held  in  Germany  within  a  year,  which  should  settle 
abuses,  and  until  it  met  they  wished  the  creed  to  be  an 
open  question.     The  nuncio  found  that  the  pulpits  of  the 
free  imperial  city  were  filled  with  preachers,  mostly  monks, 
who  were  making  the  city  resound  with  gospel  preaching. 
He  asked  the  diet  at  least  to  arrest  the  preachers  ;  the 
diet  pleaded  incompetence.     He  proposed  to  seize  them 
himself  in  the  pope's  name  ;  the  magistrates  threatened  to 
release  them  by  force,  and  the  nuncio  had  to  desist.     The 
diet  then  presented  a  hundred  gravamina  or  subjects  of 
complaint  which  the  German  nation  had  against  the  papacy, 
including  in  the   list  indulgences,  dispensations  bought  for 
money,  absentee  bishops  and  other  ecclesiastics,  the  use  of 
bans  and  interdicts,  pilgrimages,  excessive   demands  for 
money,  and  the  decisions  of  matrimonial  cases  in  ecclesi 
astical  courts.    The  complaint  was  an  expansion  of  Luther's 
address   to   the   German  nobles.     The   nuncio  could   do 
nothing,  and  was  forced  to  accept  by  way  of  compromise 
a   decision    from  the  diet  that  only  the  veritm,  jmrum, 
sincerum,  et  sanctum  evangelium  was  to  be   preached  in 
Germany.      Nuremberg    reversed    the    edict    of   Worms. 
Next  year  the  diet  met  again  at  Nuremberg,  and  the  new 
pope,  Clement   VIE.,  sent   the   celebrated    cardinal-legate 
Lorenzo  Campeggio  to  demand  the  execution  of  the  edict 
of  Worms.     The  diet  asked  in  return  what  had  become  of 
the  hundred  grievances  of  the  German  nation,  to  which 
Rome  had  never  deigned  to  return  an  answer.     Campeggio 
declared  that  at  Rome  the  document  had  been  considered 
merely  as  a  private  pamphlet ;  on  which  the  diet,  in  great 
indignation,  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  an  oecumenical 
council,  and  proceeded  to  annul  the  edict  of  Worms, — 
declaring,  however,  in  their  communication  to  the  pope, 
that  it  should  be  conformed  to  as  much  as  possible,  which 
with  respect  to  many  cities  and  princes  meant  not  at  all. 


Finally  it  was  resolved  that  a  diet  to  be  held  at  Spires 
was  to  decide  upon  the  religious  differences.  But  between 
Nuremberg  and  Spires  an  event  occurred,  the  revolt  of 
Sickingen  and  the  knights,  which  was  destined  to  work 
harm  to  the  Reformation.  The  diet  of  Spires  met,  and, 
many  of  the  members  being  inclined  to  connect  Sickingen 
and  Luther,  there  was  a  strong  feeling  against  the 
Reformation,  but  the  feeling  was  not  strong  enough  to 
induce  the  diet  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  legate 
Campeggio  and  revoke  the  decisions  of  Nuremberg,  and  it 
refused  to  execute  the  edict  of  W7orms.  Campeggio,  how 
ever,  was  able  to  separate  Germany  into  two  parties,  and 
this  separation  became  apparent  at  the  convention  of 
Ratisbon,  where  Bavaria,  Austria,  and  other  South-German 
states  resolved  to  come  to  separate  terms  with  the  papacy. 
The  curia  promised  to  stop  a  number  of  ecclesiastical 
extortions  and  indulgences,  to  make  better  appointments 
to  benefices,  and  to  hand  over  some  of  the  ecclesiastical 
estates  to  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian  princes  ;  while  the 
states  promised  to  set  aside  the  gravamina,  and  to  permit 
no  toleration  of  the  new  doctrines.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  states  which  had  kept  aloof  from  the  Reformation 
now  joined  it,  and  declared  against  the  seven  sacraments, 
the  abuses  of  the  mass,  the  worship  of  saints,  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope.  The  emperor's  brother  and  suc 
cessor  Ferdinand  was  a  bitter  foe  to  the  Reformation,  and 
urged  persecution.  Four  Augustinian  monks  at  Antwerp 
were  the  first  martyrs  ;  they  were  burnt  on  1st  July  1523. 
Ferdinand  began  the  bloody  work  of  persecution  in  the 
hereditary  states  of  Austria  immediately  after  the  conven 
tion  of  Ratisbon.  At  Passau  in  Bavaria,  and  at  Buda  in 
Hungary,  the  faggots  were  lighted.  The  dukes  of  Bavaria 
followed  the  same  impulse. 

Luther's  literary  activity  during  these  years  was  unparal- 
leled.  In  1522  he  published,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  treatises,  and  eighty-three  in  the  following  year,  among 
them  the  famous  Contra  Henricum  regem  Angliee,  in  which, 
after  having  dealt  mercilessly  with  the  royal  controversialist, 
he  exclaims,  "  I  cry  '  Gospel  !  Gospel  !  Christ  !  Christ  !  '  and 
they  cease  not  to  answer  'Usages!  Usages  !  Ordinances  !  Ordi 
nances  !  Fathers  !  Fathers  !'  The  apostle  St  Paul  annihilates 
with  a  thunderstorm  from  heaven  all  these  fooleries  of 
Henry."  His  principal  work,  however,  during  these  years 
was  the  publication  of  certain  short  tracts  upon  worship  and 
its  reform,  followed  by  various  directories  for  public  worship, 
which  afterwards  served  as  a  model  for  the  numerous 
Lutheran  Church  ordinances.  In  1522,  while  Luther  was 
still  in  the  Wartburg,  Carlstadt  had  published  for  the 
church  at  Wittenberg  an  ordinance  for  directing  the 
government  and  worship  of  the  church.  It  was  very 
brief,  but  very  revolutionary  (cf.  Richter's  Evangel,  Kirchen- 
ordnungen,  vol.  ii.  p.  484).  This  was  withdrawn  after 
Luther's  return  ;  but  the  Reformer  felt  that  the  time  had 
come  for  a  definite  reform  of  public  worship  and  for  pub 
lishing  his  views  upon  the  subject.  Accordingly,  after  a 
series  of  tracts  in  1522  upon  religious  and  monastic  vows. 
the  abolition  of  private  masses,  the  Lord's  Supper  under 
both  forms,  saint  worship,  the  so-called  spiritual  estate. 
and  the  married  life,  he  published  in  1523  The  Order  of 
the  Worship  of  God.  He  was,  as  usual,  conservative,  and 
made  as  few  changes  as  possible  in  the  form  of  service, 
caring  only  to  give  full  place  to  prayer  and  the  reading  and 
preaching  of  the  word.  The  order  of  worship  was  followed 
by  the  Formula  Hfissee,  published  in  Latin,  but  at  once 
translated  into  German  by  Paul  Speratus,  in  which  the 
ancient  form  was  as  much  preserved  as  is  consistent  with 
evangelical  doctrine.  Luther  was  of  opinion  that  the  more 
difficult  introits  should  be  removed  from  the  order  of  the 
Eucharist,  and  simpler  hymns  put  in  their  place,  and  he 
also  was  strongly  in  favour  of  the  singing  of  hymns  in  the 


Luther's 
writings 


,,erioti 


78 


L  U  T  H  E  K 


common  worship.  This  led  to  the  publication  in  1524  of 
a  small  collection  of  church  hymns,  which  was  Luther's 
first  German  Church  Hymn-book,  and  which  was  the 
beginning  of  the  wonderfully  rich  German  Protestant 
hymnology.  In  the  same  year  Luther  translated  the  order 
of  baptism,  and  published  it  under  the  title  of  Las  Tauf- 
Buchlein.  He  also  drew  up  a  directory  for  public  worship 
for  Leisnig  (cf.  Richter,  op.  cit.,  vol.  L).  The  hymn-book 
was  followed  by  a  prayer-book,  and  by  the  publication  of  a 
short  summary  of  the  heads  of  Christian  truth  fitted  for  the 
instruction  of  the  "  ruds  common  man."  Luther's  catechism 
for  children  completed  this  series  of  works,  intended  to  aid 
worship,  public  and  private.  Notwithstanding  this  immense 
amount  of  literary  work,  Luther  found  time  to  make  preach 
ing  tours,  and  visited  in  this  way  Altenburg,  Zwickau, 
Eilenburg,  Erfurt,  Weimar,  and  many  other  places,  and 
was  cheered  by  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  throughout 
North  Germany.  About  this  time  also  he  sent  a  powerful 
address  to  the  municipal  councils  of  the  German  towns, 
exhorting  them  to  establish  everywhere  Christian  schools, 
both  elementary  and  secondary.  "  Oh  my  dear  Germans," 
he  exclaimed,  "the  divine  word  is  now  in  abundance 
offered  to  you.  God  knocks  at  your  door ;  open  it  to  Him  ! 
Forget  not  the  poor  youth.  .  .  .  The  strength  of  a  town 
does  not  consist  in  its  towers  and  buildings,  but  in  count 
ing  a  great  number  of  learned,  serious,  honest,  and  well- 
educated  citizens."  He  tried  to  impress  upon  them  the 
necessity  for  the  highest  education,  the  knowledge  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  by  showing  how  serviceable  such,  learn 
ing  had  been  to  him  in  his  attack  upon  the  abuses  of 
Rome.  He  also  appealed  to  the  princes  and  cities  to  help 
the  gospel  and  the  Reformed  churches ;  but  church  rule 
and  church  maintenance  could  not  be  fixed  on  a  legal  basis 
until  much  later. 

Here  we  conclude  this  first  glorious  period  of  Luther's 
life.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  not  to  be  solved  by 
Luther  and  by  Germany ;  the  progressive  vital  element  of 
reformation  passed  from  Germany  to  Switzerland,  and 
through  Switzerland  to  France,  Holland,  England,  and 
Scotland.  Before  he  descended  into  the  grave,  and 
Germany  into  thraldom,  Luther  saved,  as  much  as  was  in 
him,  his  country  and  the  world,  by  maintaining  the  funda 
mental  principles  of  the  Reformation  against  Melanchthori's 
pusillanimity ;  but  three  Protestant  princes  and  the  free 
cities  were  the  leaders.  The  confession  was  the  work  of 
Melanchthon ;  but  the  deed  was  done  by  the  laity  of  the 
nation.  The  German  Reformation  was  made  by  a 
scholastically  trained  monk,  seconded  by  professors ;  the 
Swiss  Reformation  was  the  work  of  a  free  citizen,  an  honest 
Christian,  trained  by  the  classics  of  antiquity,  and  nursed  in 
true  hard-won  civil  liberty.  Luther's  work  was  continued, 
preserved,  and  advanced  bytho  work  of  the  Swiss  and  French 
Reformers.  The  monk  began  ;  -the  citizen  finished.  If  the 
one  destroyed  Judaism,  the  other  converted  paganism,  then 
most  powerful,  both  as  idolatry  and  as  irreligious  learning. 
But  as  long  as  Luther  lived  he  did  not  lose  his  supremacy, 
and  he  deserved  to  keep  it.  His  mind  was  universal,  and 
therefore  catholic  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 

Third  Period  (1525-1546).  In  this  third  period 
the  epic  of  Luther's  life  was  changed  into  tragedy ; 
the  revolt  of  the  knights  under  Sickingen,  the  Anabaptist 
tumults,  and  the  peasants'  war  in  the  Black  Forest 
alienated  the  sympathies  of  many  from  the  Reformation, 
and  resulted  in  a  divided  Germany  (see  vol.  x.  p.  498, 
Revolt  vol.  i.  p.  786).  From  Sickingen's  rising  Luther  sedulously 
under  kept  himself  aloof,  but  the  insurgent  had  more  than  once 
proclaimed  himself  on  Luther's  side,  and  that  was  enough 
to  make  many  of  the  princes  resolve  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  reform.  The  convention  of  Ratisbon  was  the  result 
of  Sickingen's  abortive  revolt.  The  Anabaptists  have  to 


do  with  Luther's  history  mainly  in  so  far  as  his  contact  Ana- 
with  them  modified  and  gave  final  shape  to  his  doctrine  baptist 
of  baptism.  In  his  tract  on  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  tumutts. 
1519,  Luther  distinguishes  carefully  between  the  sign -and 
the  thing  signified.  The  ordinance  is  just  the  sign,  the 
thing  signified  is  the  death  to  sin,  the  new  birth,  and  a 
new  life  in  Christ.  This  new  life  goes  on  here  on  earth, 
so  does  the  death  to  sin.  Believers  die  daily  to  sin,  not 
once  for  all  in  baptism,  and  their  life  in  Christ  is  not  a 
full  life  whilst  earth's  life  lasts ;  and  so  baptism  is  merely 
a  sign  of  what  is  never  really  accomplished  till  after  death. 
In  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church  of  God,  1520, 
Luther  adopted  a  view  not  unlike  Calvin's.  He  said  that 
God's  word  was  always  more  than  a  statement,  it  was  also 
a  promise.  Baptism  was  therefore  a  seal  or  pledge,  a 
promise  that  what  was  signified  by  the  ordinance  would 
be  bestowed.  Only  unbelief  can  rob  the  baptized  of  the 
benefits  of  their  baptism  and  make  the  ordinance  of  none 
effect.  But  after  Luther  came  in  contact  with  the 
Anabaptists  he  departed  from  this  simple  theory,  for  he 
thought  that  he  could  not  justify  infant  baptism  upon  it, 
and  so  in  his  Sermon  on  Baptism,  1535,  he  introduced  a 
third  theory,  which  approached  much  nearer  to  mediaeval 
views.  He  explained  that  in  the  ordinance  of  baptism 
God  through  His  word  so  works  on  the  water  in  the 
sacrament  that  it  is  no  longer  mere  water,  but  has  the 
power  of  the  blood  of  Christ  in  some  mysterious  fashion. 
Luther  then  asked  if  faith  was  required  for  the  worthy 
partaking  of  the  sacrament,  and  he  felt  obliged  to  confess 
that  the  faith  of  the  recipient  was  not  needed.  This 
sermon  marks  Luther's  reaction  towards  ideas  he  had 
abandoned  in  1519-20. 

More  important  was  the  connexion  between  the  Lutheran  Peasant! 
movement  and  the  peasant  revolt.  The  first  coalitions  of  war- 
the  peasants  against  the  intolerable  rapacity  and  cruelty  of 
the  feudal  aristocracy  had  begun  before  the  close  of  the 
15th  century.  But  all  the  oppressed  inclined  towards 
Luther,  and  the  oppressors,  most  of  whom  were  sovereigns, 
bishops,  and  abbots,  towards  the  pope.  The  struggle  in  the 
peasants' warwas  really  between  the  reforming  and  the  papist 
party,  and  it  could  easily  be  foreseen  that  Luther  would 
be  dragged  into  it.  As  early  as  January  1525  the  revolu 
tionary  movement  had  extended  from  the  Black  Forest  into 
Thuringia  and  Saxony,  and  the  peasants  were  eagerly 
looking  to  Luther  for  help.  The  more  moderate  party 
published  their  programme  in  twelve  articles,  with  a  very 
remarkable  preface,  in  which  they  stated  that  they  did  not 
wish  for  war,  and  asked  nothing  that  was  not  in  accord 
ance  with  the  gospel.  These  articles  were  the  following  :— 

(1)  the  whole  congregation  to  have  power  to  elect  their 
minister,  and  if  he  was  found  unworthy  to  dismiss  him  ; 

(2)  the  great  tithe,  i.e.,  the  legal  tithe  of  corn,  to  be  still 
payable  for  the  maintenance  of  the  pastor,  and  what  is  over 
to  go  to  support  the  poor ;  the  small  tithes  to  be  no  longer 
payable ;  (3)  serfdom  abolished,  since  Christ  has  redeemed 
us  all  by  His  precious  blood  ;  (4)  game,  fish,  and  fowl  to  be 
free  as  God  created  them  ;  (5)  the  rich  have  appropriated 
the  forests,  this  to  be  rearranged ;  (6)  compulsory  service 
to  be  abolished — wages  for  work ;  (7)  peasant  service  to 
be  limited  by  contract,  and  work  done  above  contract  to 
bo  paid   for ;    (8)  fair  rents ;    (9)  arbitrary  punishments 
abolished;  (10)  the  commons  restored;  (11)  the  right  of 
heriot,  i.e.,  the  right  of  the  lord  to  take  the  vassal's  best 
chattel,  to  be  abolished;  (12)  all  these  propositions  to  be 
tested  by  Scripture,  and  what  cannot  stand  the  test  to  be 
rejected.     Most  impartial   historians   have   declared  that 
their  demands  were  on  the  whole  just,  and  most  of  them 
have  become  law  in  Germany.     The  words  of  Scripture 
brought  forward  by  the  peasants  prove  clearly  that  Luther's 
preaching  of  the  gospel  had  acted,  not  as  an  incentive,  but 


LUTHER 


79 


as  a  corrective.  The  peasants  declared  their  desire  to 
uphold  the  injunctions  of  the  gospel,  peace,  patience,  and 
union.  Like  the  Puritans  in  the  following  century,  the 
peasants  say  that  they  raise  their  voice  to  God  who  saved 
the  people  of  Israel ;  and  they  believe  that  God  can  save 
them  from  their  powerful  oppressors,  as  he  did  the 
Israelites  from  the  hand  of  Pharaoh.  Luther  evidently 
felt  himself  appealed  to.  The  crisis  was  difficult,  and,  in 
spite  of  what  has  been  said  in  his  defence,  he  failed,  as  he 
failed  afterwards  in  the  conference  with  the  Swiss  deputies 
at  Marburg.  Had  Luther  thrown  the  weight  of  his  in 
fluence  into  the  peasants'  scale,  and  brought  the  middle 
classes,  who  would  certainly  have  followed  him,  to  the  side 
of  the  peasants,  a  peaceful  solution  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  arrived  at,  and  the  horrors  of  massacre  averted. 
But  Luther,  bold  enough  against  the  pope  or  the  emperor, 
never  had  courage  to  withstand  thab  authority  to  which  he 
was  constantly  accustomed,  the  German  prince.  He  began 
by  speaking  for  the  peasants  in  his  address  to  the  lords, 
and  had  courage  enough  to  tell  them  some  plain  truths,  as 
when  he  said  that  some  of  the  twelve  articles  of  the 
peasants  are  so  equitable  as  to  dishonour  the  lords  before 
God  and  the  world,  when  he  told  them  that  they  must  not 
refuse  the  peasants'  demands  to  choose  pastors  who 
would  preach  the  gospel,  and  when  he  said  that  the  social 
demands  of  the  peasants  were  just,  and  that  good  govern 
ment  was  not  established  for  its  own  interest  nor  to  make 
the  people  subservient  to  caprice  and  evil  passion,  but  for 
the  interest  of  the  people.  "  Your  exactions  are  intoler 
able,"  he  said,  "you  take  away  from  the  peasant  the  fruit 
of  his  labour  in  order  to  spend  his  labour  upon  your  finery 
and  luxury."  He  was  courageous  enough  also  in  asking 
the  peasants  to  refrain  from  violence,  and  in  telling  them 
that  they  would  put  themselves  in  the  wrong  by  rebellion, 
But  what  Luther  did  not  see  was  that  the  time  for  good 
advice  had  gone  by,  and  that  he  had  to  take  his  stand  on 
one  side  or  the  other.  He  trusted  too  much  in  fine  language. 
His  advice  that  arbiters  should  be  chosen,  some  from  the 
nobility  and  some  from  towns,  that  both  parties  should 
give  up  something,  and  that  the  matter  should  be  amicably 
settled  by  human  law,  came  ten  months  too  late.  The 
bloody  struggle  came ;  the  stream  of  rebellion  and  destruc 
tion  rolled  on  to  Thuringia  and  Saxony,  and  Luther 
apparently  lost  his  head,  and  actually  encouraged  the 
nobles  in  their  sanguinary  suppression  of  the  revolt,  in  his 
pamphlet  entitled  Against  the  Murdering,  Robbing  Rats  of 
Peasants,  where  he  hounds  on  the  authorities  to  "  stab, 
kill,  and  strangle."  The  princes  leagued  together,  and  the 
peasants  were  routed  everywhere.  One  army,  with  neither 
military  arms  nor  leaders,  was  utterly  routed  at  Franken- 
hausen,  another  in  Wiirtemberg.  Fifty  thousand  were 
slain  or  butchered  by  wholesale  executions.  Among  this 
number  many  of  the  quietest  and  most  moderate  people 
were  made  victims  in  the  general  slaughter,  because  they 
were  known  or  suspected  to  be  friends  of  the  Reformation 
and  of  Luther,  which  indeed  all  the  citizens  and  peasants 
of  Germany  were  at  that  time.  None  felt  more  deeply, 
when  it  was  too  late,  this  misery,  and  what  it  involved  in 
its  effects  on  the  cause  of  the  gospel  in  Germany,  than 
Luther ;  and  he  never  recovered  the  shock.  He  thus 
unburdens  his  soul  at  the  close  of  this  fatal  year,  which 
crushed  for  centuries  the  rights  and  hopes  of  the  peasants 
and  labourers,  and  weakened  the  towns  and  cities,  the  seats 
of  all  that  was  best  in  the  national  life, — "  The  spirit  of 
these  tyrants  is  powerless,  cowardly,  estranged  from  every 
honest  thought.  They  deserve  to  be  the  slaves  of  the 
people  ;"  and  in  the  next  year — "  I  fear  Germany  is  lost ; 
it  cannot  be  otherwise,  for  they  will  employ  nothing  but 
the  sword." 

The   prospect    was   dark   enough    for   the    Reformer. 


tion. 


Ferdinand  of  Austria  and  the  duke  of  Bavaria  were 
imprisoning  and  slaying  Christians  on  account  of  the 
gospel.  The  emperor,  fresh  from  his  victory  at  Pavia,  and 
the  pope  were  combining  to  crush  the  Reformation,  and  it 
was  rumoured  that  the  kings  of  France  and  England  were 
to  lend  their  aid.  The  convention  of  Ratisbon  had  resulted 
in  a  Roman  Catholic  league  in  which  Duke  George  of 
Saxony,  Albert  elector-archbishop  of  Mainz,  and  the  duke 
of  Brunswick  were  the  leaders.  Luther  also  found  that 
the  war  had  demoralized  the  Protestant  congregations,  and 
that  they  were  becoming  ignorant  and  savage.  And  in 
May  1525  the  elector  Frederick  died. 

It  was  under  such  auspices  that  Luther  decided  at  last  Luther's 
to  take  a  wife,  as  he  had  long  advised  his  friends  among  marriage, 
the  priests  and  monks  to  do.  He  married  Catherine  von 
Bora,  a  lady  twenty-four  years  of  age,  of  a  noble  Saxon 
family,  who  had  left  her  convent  together  with  eight  other 
sisters  in  order  to  worship  Christ  without  the  oppression 
of  endless  ceremonies,  which  gave  neither  light  to  the  mind 
nor  peace  to  the  soul.  The  sisters  had  lived  together  in 
retirement,  protected  by  pious  citizens  of  Torgau.  Luther 
married  her  on  June  11,  1525,  in  the  presence  of  Lucas 
Cranach  and  of  another  friend  as  witnesses.  Catherine 
von  Bora  had  no  dowry,  and  Luther  lived  on  his  appoint 
ment  as  professor ;  he  would  never  take  any  money  for  his 
books.  His  marriage  was  a  happy  one,  and  was  blessed 
with  six  children.  He  was  a  tender  husband,  and  the 
most  loving  of  fathers.  In  the  close  of  the  year  1525 
Luther  was  engaged  in  controversy  with  Erasmus  on  the 
freedom  of  the  will. 

The  princes  who  were  friendly  to  the  Reformation  Progress 
gradually  gained  more  courage.  The  elector  John  ofoftlie 
Saxony  established  the  principle  in  his  state  that  all  rites 
should  be  abrogated  which  were  contrary  to  the  Scriptures, 
and  that  the  masses  for  the  dead  be  abolished  at  once. 
The  young  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  gained  over  the  son 
of  the  furious  Duke  George  to  the  cause  of  the  Reforma 
tion.  Albert,  duke  of  Prussia,  had  established  it  at 
Konigsberg,  as  hereditary  duke,  abolishing  the  vows  of 
the  order  whose  master  he  had  been,  saying  : — "  There  is 
only  one  order,  and  that  is  Christendom."  At  the  request 
of  the  pope,  Charles  placed  Albert  under  interdict  as  an 
apostate  monk.  The  evangelical  princes  found  in  all  these 
circumstances  a  still  stronger  motive  to  act  at  Augsburg 
as  allies  in  the  cause  of  the  evangelical  party ;  and  when 
the  diet  opened  in  December  1525  they  spoke  out 
boldly  : — "  It  is  violence  which  brought  on  the  war  of  the 
peasants.  If  you  will  by  violence  tear  the  truth  of  God 
out  of  the  hearts  of  those  who  believe,  you  will  draw 
greater  dangers  and  evils  upon  you."  The  Romanist 
party  was  startled.  "  The  cause  of  the  holy  faith  "  was 
adjourned  to  the  next  diet  at  Spires.  The  landgrave  and 
the  elector  made  a  formal  alliance  in  February  1526  at 
Torgau. 

Luther,  being  consulted  as  to  his  opinion,  felt  helpless. 
"  You  have  no  faith ;  you  put  not  your  trust  in  God ; 
leave  all  to  Him."  The  landgrave,  the  real  head  of  the 
evangelical  alliance,  perceived  that  Luther's  advice  was 
not  practical — that  Luther  forsook  the  duty  of  self-defence 
and  the  obligation  to  do  one's  duty  according  to  the  dictates 
of  reason,  in  religious  matters  as  well  as  in  other  political 
questions.  But  the  alliance  found  no  new  friends. 
Germany  showed  all  her  misery  by  the  meanness  of  her 
princes  and  the  absence  of  any  great  national  body  to 
oppose  the  league  formed  by  the  pope,  the  emperor,,  and 
the  Romanists  throughout  Europe.  The  archbishop  of 
Treves  preferred  a  pension  from  Charles  to  the  defence  of 
the  national  cause.  The  evangelically-disposed  elector 
of  the  palatinate  desired  to  avoid  getting  into  trouble. 
The  imperial  city  of  Frankfort,  surrounded  by  open 


80 

enemies  and  timid  friends,  declined  to  accede  to  the 
alliance.  There  was  more  national  feeling  and  courage 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  north  of  Germany.  The  princes  of 
Brunswick,  Luxemburg,  Mecklenburg,  Anhalt,  and  Mans- 
feld  assembled  at  Magdeburg,  and  made  a  solemn  and 
heroic  declaration  of  their  resolution  "to  pledge  their 
estates,  lives,  states,  and  subjects  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  holy  word  of  God,  relying  on  Almighty  God,  as  whose 
instruments  they  would  act."  The  town  of  Magdeburg 
(which  then  had  about  three  times  as  many  inhabitants  as 
now)  a'nd  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  adhered  to  the  alliance. 
The  league  doubled  its  efforts.  Charles,  strong  and 
rendered  safe  by  the  peace  of  Madrid  concluded  with 
Francis,  sent  word  from  Seville  in  March  1526,  through 
the  Romish  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick,  that  he  would  soon 
come  himself  to  crush  the  heresy.  Luther  saw  the  dangers 
crowding  around  him;  his  advice  was, — "We  are  threatened 
with  war ;  let  us  force  our  enemies  to  keep  the  peace,  con 
quered  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  before  whose  throne  we  must 
now  combat  with  the  arms  of  prayer ;  that  is  the  first  work 
to  be  done." 

Diet  of  The  emperor  commissioned  his  brother  Ferdinand  to 
Spues,  preside  at  the  diet  of  Spires  and  carry  out  his  wishes.  But 
°~  '  before  the  diet  met  Francis  and  the  pope  had  formed  a 
league  against  him,  and  Charles  had  commissioned  Count 
Frundsberg  to  levy  an  army  of  Germans  to  fight  against 
the  pope,  while  Ferdinand  was  called  to  Hungary  to  main 
tain  against  the  Turks  and  others  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  bequeathed  to  him  by  King  Louis  after  the 
battle  of  Mohacz.  When  the  diet  at  Spires  met  (June  1526), 
after  some  deliberation  a  proposition  presented  by  the  free 
cities  was  accepted  that  until  a  general  council  met  "every 
state  shall  live,  rule,  and  bear  itself  as  it  shall  be  ready  to 
answer  for  to  God  and  his  imperial  majesty," — a  decision 
which  foreshadowed  the  famous  Augsburg  formula  cujus 
regio  ejus  religio,  the  principle  on  which  the  German 
Protestant  church  was  afterwards  legally  based.  The 
Reformation  had  thus  the  three  years,  1526-1529,  to 
organize  and  consolidate  itself.  The  man  of  Germany  at 
that  time  among  the  princes  was  Philip,  landgrave  of 
Hesse,  and  he  was  taught  what  to  do  by  a  citizen  James 
Sturm,  the  deputy  of  Strasburg  at  Spires.  Sturm  had  con 
vinced  Philip  that  the  basis  of  the  true  evangelical  church 
was  the  acknowledgment  of  the  self-government  of  the 
church  by  synods  composed  of  the  representatives  of  the 
whole  Christian  people ;  and  this  was  embodied  in  the  first 
Protestant  constitution,  the  Reformalio  ecdesiarum  Hassise 
juxta  certissimam  sermonum  Dei  regidam  ordinata.1  The 
constitution  acknowledged  the  episcopal  element,  but  not 
episcopal  rule ;  the  jus  episcopate  was  invested  in  the 
Christian  community,  and  the  flock  of  Christ  were  to  heat- 
only  the  voice  of  their  shepherd  Christ.  Bishops  and 
deacons  were  to  be  elected  by  the  Christian  people  ; 
bishops  were  to  be  consecrated  by  imposition  of  the  hands 
of  three  bishops,  and  deacons  instituted  by  the  imposition 
of  the  hands  of  elders;  while  elders  were  associated  with 
the  pastors  in  the  pastoral  care  of  the  congregation.  A 
general  or  land  synod  was  to  be  held  annually,  consisting 
of  the  pastor  of  each  parish  and  of  pious  men  elected  from 
the  various  congregations,  and  there  were  provisions  made 
for  provincial  and  congregational  synods.  Three  men 
were  to  be  elected  annually  to  exercise  the  right  of  visita 
tion.  This  was  afterwards  found  to  be  inconvenient,  and 
six  and  then  thirteen  superintendents  for  life  were  sub 
stituted.  This  board  of  superintendents  became  afterwards 
an  oligarchy,  and  at  last  a  mere  instrument  of  state, 
overriding  the  original  democratic  constitutions  of  the 

1  See  Richter,  Evany.  Kirchenordnungcn,  i.  p.  56 ;   and  Lechler, 
Gesch.  d.  Prrsb.  u.  Synod.  Verfassung,  p.  14. 


church,  a  consequence  of  the  disruption  of  Germany  and 
of  the  paralysis  of  all  national  institutions.  Luther  had 
in  1523  and  1524  professed  principles  almost  identical 
with  those  established  in  1526  in  Hesse.  His  action 
ceased  there  ;  after  the  peasants'  war  he  abandoned  his 
more  liberal  ideas,  and  insisted  on  leaving  everything  to 
the  princes,  and  what  could  a  people  do  cut  up  into 
fottr  hundred  sovereignties  1  Luther  never  acknowledged 
Caesaropapism  or  Erastianism  as  a  principle  and  as  a  right. 
He  considered  the  rights  of  the  Christian  people  as  a 
sncred  trust  provisionally  deposited  in  the  hands  of  the 
princes  their  representatives.  "  Where,"  he  asked,  "  are 
the  people  to  form  the  synods'?  I  cannot  find  them."  It 
was  Melanchthon's  influence  that  facilitated  the  despotic 
system  and  hampered  the  thorough  reform  of  the  forms  of 
worship.  Luther  withdrew  from  a  sphere  which  he  felt 
was  not  his.  He  busied  himself  during  these  years  with 
plans  to  improve  and  simplify  the  church  services  at  Wit 
tenberg.  Some  portions  of  the  music  in  the  communion 
service  were  too  difficult  for  the  people.  Luther  induced 
the  elector  to  provide  music  teachers,  and  also  to  permit  a 
simpler  service.  This  led  to  the  German  Mass  and  Order 
of  Worship  for  Wittenberg.  The  churches  too  throughout 
electoral  Saxony  were  becoming  better  attended,  and 
Luther  had  to  consider  and  devise  plans  for  church  exten 
sion  and  supervision.  His  letters  to  Philip  of  Hesse, 
disapproving  of  the  new  constitution  of  the  church  there, 
show  how  jealous  he  had  become  of  the  entrance  of 
democratic  ideas.  He  asked  the  elector  of  Saxony  to  take 
charge  of  the  church  within  his  dominions,  and  Melanch 
thon's  articles  for  the  visitation  of  the  churches  in  Saxony, 
which  foreshadowed  the  Lutheran  consistorial  organization, 
show  that  Luther  distinctly  contemplates  the  transfer  of 
the  jus  episcopate  to  the  princes  and  magistrates.  It  is 
true  that  he  called  these  magistrates  Nothebisclwfe,  but  he 
could  not  see  any  other  solution  of  the  difficulty,  and 
undoubtedly  from  the  legal  point  of  view  it  was  easy  to 
transfer  the  right  of  supervision  from  one  external  authority 
to  another,  and  difficult  to  hand  it  over  from  the  bishops 
to  the  congregation.  The  new  ecclesiastical  organization 
adopted  in  Hesse  and  electoral  Saxony  had  the  effect  of 
making  the  archbishop  of  Mainz  renounce  in  1528  the 
spiritual  jurisdiction  he  had  hitherto  exercised  over  these 
two  districts. 

Meanwhile  the  emperor  had  been  again  successful  in  his  Diet  of 
political  schemes.     His  German  army  under  the  Constable  Spires, 
Bourbon  and  General  Frundsberg  had  seized  upon  Italy         ' 
and  had  sacked  Rome,  and  again  he  had  brought  the  pope 
and  Francis  to  terms.     It  only  remained  to  subdue  the 
Reformation,  and  the  mediaeval  empire  might  be  restored. 
He  first  sent  a  dispatch  saying  that  the  edict  of  Worms 
was  to  be  held  as  in  force.     When  the  diet  met  at  Spires 
in  1529,  the  imperial  commissioners  forbade  the  celebration 
of  worship  according  to  the  reformed  usage  in  churches, 
and  afterwards  in  the  houses  of  the  elector  and  of   the 
landgrave.     The  Act  of   Toleration  of    1526    was   to  be 
abrogated.     The  diet  appeared  to  be  hopelessly  divided,  a 
majority  with  the  emperor  and  a  minority  with  the  elector 
and   the   landgrave,  and    the   majority   passed   an   edict 
which  amounted  to  this  that  where  the  edict  of  Worms 
could  not  be  executed  without  fear  of  revolution  no  further 
reforms   were  to  be  allowed.     The  minority  prepared   a  The  pro- 
protest.     "The  diet  has  overstepped  its  authority,"  they  test  and 
said;  "our   acquired  right   is  that  the  decree  of    1526,  Pl'°iei 
unanimously  adopted,  remains  in  force  until  a  council  can 
be  convened.     Up  to  this  time  the  decree  has  maintained 
the    peace,    and    we     protest    against    its     abrogation." 
Ferdinand,  who  represented  his  brother,  assured  the  princes 
that   nothing    remained    for    them    but   to    submit ;  he 
threr.tened  the  free  cities  with  the  loss  of  their  privileges 


and  with  an  interdict,  and  he  left  the  diet  while  the 
evangelical  members  were  deliberating.  In  spite  of  these 
threats  the  protest  was  signed  by  John  of  Saxony,  George  of 
Brandenburg,  Ernest  of  Liineburg,  Philip  of  Hesse,  and 
Wolfgang  of  Anhalt  among  the  princes,  and  by  the 
representatives  of  the  free  cities  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg, 
Ulm,  Costnitz  (Constance),  Lindau,  Memmingen,  Kempten, 
Nb'rdlingen,  Heilbroun,  Reutlingen,  Isny,  St  Gall,  W7eissen- 
burg,  and  Windsheim.  This  celebrated  protest  of  April 
15,  1529,  from  which  comes  the  name  Protestant,  is  one  of 
the  noblest  documents  of  Christian  history.  The  protest 
ing  princes  and  cities  claimed  as  their  right  as  Germans 
the  sacred  duty  freely  to  preach  the  word  of  God  and  the 
message  of  salvation,  that  all  who  would  hear  it  might 
join  the  community  of  believers.  It  was  also  an  earnest 
of  true  evangelical  union ;  for  it  was  well  known  that 
most  of  the  cities  were  more  inclined  towards  Zwingli's 
than  towards  Lather's  view  of  the  sacrament. 

If  this  great  act  be  considered  impartially,  it  is  im 
possible  not  to  see  that  neither  Luther  nor  Melanchthon 
was  the  real  leader  of  the  time.  Luther  had  no  real  com 
prehension  of  what  had  to  be  done  in  Germany  to  preserve 
the  gospel  from  destruction.  He  had  shown  little  sym 
pathy  with  the  first  attempt  made  in  Hesse  at  the  self- 
government  of  the  church ;  still  less  did  he  see  the 
importance  of  the  protest  at  Spires,  and  of  the  unity  it 
give  to  the  evangelical  cause.  It  was  evident  that  nothing 
but  the  inroad  of  the  Turks  had  saved  the  Protestant 
princes  after  the  diet,  and  that  Charles  was  so  far  master 
of  Germany  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  Germany  to 
become  a  Protestant  nation.  The  Protestants  were  lost 
unless  they  strengthened  the  alliance  which  they  had  just 
founded  at  Spires.  But  Luther  disliked  such  alliances;  he 
dissuaded  the  elector  from  sending  deputies  to  the  meeting 
agreed  to  be  held  at  Stnalkald,  and  when  the  Saxon  depu 
ties  prevented  any  business  being  done  he  was  proud  of  the 
result.  This  apparent  blindness  and  perversion  of  mind 
requires  explanation.  Luther  lived  under  the  shadow  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  had  been  trained  in  scholastic  law 
as  well  as  in  scholastic  theology.  To  the  mediaeval  jurist 
the  emperor  was  the  impersonation  of  all  social  order  and 
moral  law  ;  he  was  the  vicar  of  God.  In  the  later  Middle 
Ages  the  jurists  had  exaggerated  this  sacredness  of  the 
emperor,  and  had  done  so  quite  naturally  in  order  to  protect 
civil  law  from  canon  law,  and  to  uphold  the  state  against 
the  church.  Luther  could  throw  off  scholastic  theology, 
but  he  could  not  throw  off  that  scholastic  jurisprudence 
that  all  his  mediaeval  heroes,  Occam,  Wickl.iffe,  and  Huss 
had  found  so  useful  in  their  attacks  on  the  papacy,  and 
that  Luther  himself  had  found  so  serviceable  when  he  ap 
pealed  from  the  church  defined  by  the  pope  to  the  church 
defined  by  the  empire.  He  could  not  bear  to  think  of  an 
alliance  against  the  holy  Roman  empire.  Luther  too  had 
been  trained  in  the  school  of  Tauler  and  the  Theologia 
Germanica,  and  partook  greatly  of  their  quietism.  "  Suffer 
God  to  do  His  work  in  you  and  about  you  "  was  their  motto. 
There  was  a  theological  scruple  also  at  the  bottom  of 
Luther's  opposition  to  a  vigorous  Protestant  alliance  and 
a  national  attitude.  This  betrayed  itself,  first,  in  an  un 
easiness  about  Zwingli's  rising  influence  in  Germany,  and, 
secondly,  as  a  doctrinal  idiosyncrasy  respecting  the  sacra 
ment  of  the  Eucharist.  Philip  of  Hesse  saw  through  this 
instantly,  and  said,  "  I  see  they  are  against  the  alliance  on 
account  of  these  Zwinglians ;  well,  let  us  see  whether  we 
cannot  make  these  theological  differences  disappear." 

When  Luther  was  raised  above  himself  by  the  great 
Pro^ern  before  him  in  that  glorious  period  of  action  from 
1518  to  1524,  he  had  considered  the  sacrament  as  a  part 
of  the  services  of  the  church,  and  a  secondary  matter  com- 
pared  with  the  right  view  of  faith  or  the  inward  Christianity 


81 

which  implies  necessarily  an  unselfish  believing  and  thank 
ful  mind.  He  was  convinced  that  there  was  no  virtue 
inherent  in  the  elements  apart  from  the  communion,  and 
it  was  a  matter  indifferent  how  the  spirituality  of  the  action 
and  the  real  presence,  even  the  transubstantiation,  might 
be  reconciled  with  faith.  But  the  peasants'  war  and  Carl- 
stadt's  mystical  enthusiasm  alarmed  him.  Where  was  this 
to  lead  to,  he  asked,  and  lie  seems  to  have  settled  down 
into  a  great  resolve  to  abide  by  the  tradition  of  the  church, 
and  alter  as  little  as  possible  provided  room  was  found 
for  the  exercise  of  living  faith.  So  when  he  felt  called 
upon  to  form  a  theory  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  of 
the  Eucharist  he  went  back  to  his  scholasticism  to  find 
there  some  theory  which  should  be  traditional  and  yet  afford 
room  for  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  all  believers,  and  for 
the  exercise  of  faith  on  the  promises  of  God.  He  found  it 
in  the  writings  of  that  schoolman  whom  he  more  than  once 
calls  "his  dear  master,"  the  daring  Englishman  William  of 
Occam.  Transubstantiation,  the  Romish  doctrine,  offended 
Luther  in  his  two  essential  requirements  :  it  demanded  a 
miracle  which  could  be  performed  by  a  priest  only,  and 
this  miraculous  power  so  separated  clergy  from  laity  that 
it  denied  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  all  believers:  and,  when 
the  elements  had  been  made  by  the  priest's  creating  w'ord 
the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord,  their  supernatural  efficacy, 
apart  from  the  faith  of  the  communicant,  imparted  grace. 
Occam  had  championed  a  theory  which  in  some  form  or 
other  had  been  in  the  church  since  the  10th  century  at 
least,  and  which  openly  rejected  one  of  these  stumbling 
blocks,  and,  as  Luther  saw,  really  did  away  with  the  other 
also.  According  to  Occam's  scholastic  distinctions,  matter 
can  be  present  in  two  ways — (1)  when  it  occupies  a  distinct 
place  by  itself,  excluding  every  other  body,  e.g.,  two  stones 
mutually  exclude  each  other,  and  (2)  when  it  occupies  the 
same  space  as  another  body  at  the  same  time.  Every 
thing  which  is  omnipresent  or  ubiquitous  must  be  able  to 
occupy  the  same  space  as  other  things,  else  it  could  not  be 
ubiquitous.  Christ's  resurrection  body,  said  Occam,  had 
this  power  when,  our  Lord  appeared  among  His  disciples 
while  they  were  in  a  room  with  the  doors  shut ;  at  a 
certain  moment  of  time  it  and  a  portion  of  door  or  wall 
must  have  been  in  the  same  place  at  the  same  time  ;  and 
besides  Christ's  body  is  ubiquitous.  It  is  therefore  in  the 
elements  bread  and  wine,  in,  with,  and  under  them. 
Luther  took  over  this  doctrine  from  Occam  without  altera 
tion.  The  very  illustrations  he  uses  in  his  Bekenntniss 
vom  Abendmakl  are  taken  almost  verbatim  from  Occam, 
De  Altaris  Sacramento.  From  this  it  followed  that  con- 
substantiation  involved  no  miracle.  Christ's  body  was  not 
brought  into  the  elements  by  the  priest;  it  was  there  natur 
ally.  But  its  presence  in  these  elements  on  sacramental 
occasions  brought  with  it  a  blessing,  and  imparted  grace, 
not  because  of  the  presence,  but  because  God  had  promised 
that  this  particular  presence  of  the  everywhere  present  body 
of  Christ  would  bring  blessings  to  the  faithful  partaker. 
Occam's  theory  of  consubstantiation  fulfilled  all  Luther's 
wants,  and  above  all  it  involved  no  explaining  away  of  the 
plain  meaning  of  the  sentence,  "  This  is  my  body,"  such  as 
had  offended  him  in  Carlstadt.  It  is  easy  to  see  therefore 
how  Luther  was  alarmed  at  Zwingli.  The  Swiss  Reformer 
seemed  to  attack  everything  that  Luther  prized.  He  did 
not  care  for  tradition  or  church  usage ;  he  seemed  engaged 
in  a  rationalistic  attack  on  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
church,  and  on  the  word  of  God,  and  so  he  was  guilty,  in 
Luther's  estimation,  both  of  self-confidence  and  of  a 
rationalism.  On  the  other  hand,  Zwingli  could  not  under 
stand  what  Luther  meant;  and  yet  he  was  anxious  to  unite 
with  him,  and  was  willing  to  leave  this  one  difficulty  an 
open  question.  It  was  in  these  circumstances — suspicion 
on  the  part  of  Luther,  blank  amazement  on  the  part  cf 

XV.  —  ii 


82 


Marburg 
confer- 


Diet  of 
Augs 
burg 
and  the 
Augs 
burg 
confes 
sion. 


Zwingli — that  Philip  of  Hesse  induced  the  Swiss  and  the 
German  theologians  to  meet  at  Marburg.  Luther  was 
gloomy  and  suspicious,  "as  he  had  never  been  seen  before," 
a  friend  said.  The  frank  declarations  of  the  Swiss 
Reformers  soon  cleared  away  all  shadows  of  difference  and 
dissent  on  all  points  but  one,  and  fourteen  articles  denning 
the  chief  heads  of  Christian  doctrine  were  adopted  by  both 
parties.  Then  came  the  discussion  on  the  fifteenth,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  Luther  took  a  piece  of  chalk 
and  wrote  upon  the  table  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  and  when 
worsted  in  argument,  as  he  usually  was,  appealed  to  the 
sentence.  The  discussion,  which  lasted  four  days,  however, 
resulted  in  the  parties  recognizing  exactly  where  the  point 
of  difference  lay,  and  in  reducing  it  to  its  smallest  dimen 
sions.  Both  declared  that  they  agreed  in  recognizing  the 
Eucharist  to  be  a  sacrament  of  the  true  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  and  that  a  spiritual  partaking  of  this  body  was  a 
means  of  grace.  They  differed  whether  the  true  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  were  corporeally  in  the  sacrament.  It  was 
hoped  that  time  would  bring  about  alliance  if  not  agree 
ment,  but  Luther  was  obstinate.  "  Submit  yourselves, 
believe  as  we  do,  or  you  cannot  be  acknowledged  as  Chris 
tians."  He  refused  Zwingli's  hand ;  "  You  have  another 
spirit  from  us,"  he  said,  meaning  that  there  was  no  objec 
tive  basis  of  faith  between  them  owing  to  what  he  thought 
to  be  Zwingli's  rationalism.  The  result  was  a  sad  one, 
but  Zwingli  was  to  some  extent  a  gainer;  his  view  be 
came  naturalized  in  Germany,  where  Swabia  adopted  it, 
as  did  many  of  the  imperial  cities,  and  Philip  of  Hesse 
indicated  that  he  preferred  it. 

The  Marburg  conference  was  a  sad  prelude  to  the 
decisive  diet  to  be  held  at  Augsburg  in  1530.  The  new 
diet  was  anxiously  awaited.  Charles  had  made  known  his 
intention  to  be  present,  and  that  he  intended  to  enforce 
obedience  to  the  edict  of  Worms.  He  entered  Augsburg 
with  great  magnificence,  and  was  in  fact  at  the  zenith 
of  his  power.  He  had  broken  the  might  of  France, 
humbled  the  papacy,  been  crowned  at  Bologna,  reor 
ganized  Italy,  and  driven  back  the  Turk.  His  only 
remaining  task,  and  it  seemed  easy,  was  to  crush  the 
Reformation.  He  first  summoned  before  him  the  pro 
testing  princes  and  asked  them  to  withdraw  the  protest. 
This  they  refused  to  do ;  they  had  a  clear  constitutional 
right,  founding  on  the  decision  of  Spires,  to  resist  the 
emperor,  and  they  resolved  to  exercise  it.  Divine  ser 
vice  after  Lutheran  fashion  was  held  at  their  quarters, 
and  they  refused  to  join  in  the  procession  of  the  host 
at  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi.  Meanwhile  Luther, 
Melanchthon  with  him,  was  at  Coburg,  near  enough  at 
hand  for  consultation  and  yet  beyond  the  emperor's 
reach.  Melanchthon  was  preparing  a  confession  with  a 
defence,  the  so-called  Apology,  in  case  the  emperor  should 
require  a  statement  of  their  doctrines.  Luther  was  writing 
commentaries  on  the  Psalms  and  the  prophets,  and  was 
also  preparing  a  popular  edition  of  JZsop's  Fables.  He 
also  wrote  comforting  letters  to  the  elector,  and  addressed 
one  of  his  most  powerful  writings  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  assembled  in  the  diet  at  Augsburg.  Melanchthon 
was  sent  for  to  consult  about  the  confession  which  the 
emperor  had  asked  for,  and  Luther  remained  alone  at 
Coburg  full  of  anxiety,  for  he  knew  his  friend's  helpless 
ness  in  the  actual  bustle  of  life.  When  Melanchthon  got 
to  Augsburg  he  really  became  a  source  of  weakness.  He 
induced  the  elector  for  the  sake  of  peace  to  give  up  the 
services  in  the  Franciscan  church,  and  the  Protestant 
preachers  left  the  town  in  despair.  Luther  all  the  while 
had  been  quiet,  waiting  in  patience;  but  this  was  too  much 
for  him,  and  he  wrote  to  encourage  the  elector  to  resist. 
At  length  the  Protestants  were  asked  to  present  their  con 
fession.  The  emperor  ordered  it  to  be  read  in  Latin.  "No," 


said  the  elector,  "  we  are  Germans  and  on  German  ground. 
I  hope  therefore  your  majesty  will  allow  us  to  speak  Ger 
man."  When  the  vice-chancellor  of  the  elector,  Dr  Christian 
Baier,  had  read  the  first  part  of  the  confession,  which  ex 
pounds  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  particular 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  "that  faith  which 
is  not  the  mere  knowledge  of  an  historical  fact,  but  that 
which  believes,  not  only  the  history,  but  also  the  effect  of 
that  history  upon  the  mind,"  it  is  said  that  an  indescribable 
effect  was  produced  upon  the  assembly.  The  opponents 
felt  that  there  was  a  reality  before  them  which  they  had 
never  imagined ;  and  others  said  that  such  a  profession  of 
faith  by  such  princes  was  a  more  effectual  preaching  than 
that  which  had  been  stopped.  "  Christ,"  said  Jonas,  "  is 
in  the  diet,  and  he  does  not  keep  silence ;  the  word  of  God  is 
indeed  not  to  be  bound."  The  Roman  Catholic  theologians 
present  answered  the  confession,  and  then  the  emperor 
engaged  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  theologians  in 
negotiations  in  which  Melanchthon  soon  showed  his  yield 
ing  character,  even  granting  that  the  Protestants  might 
acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope.  At  this  critical  moment  Luther's 
indignation  found  vent.  "  I  understand,"  he  wrote  to 
Melanchthon,  "  that  you  have  begun  a  marvellous  work,  to 
make  Luther  and  the  pope  agree  together,  but  the  pope 
will  say  that  he  will  not,  and  Luther  begs  to  be  excused. 
Should  you,  however,  after  all  succeed  in  your  affair,  I 
will  follow  your  example  and  make  an  agreement  between 
Christ  and  Belial.  Take  care  that  you  give  not  up 
justification  by  faith ;  that  is  the  heel  of  the  seed  of  the 
woman  to  crush  the  serpent's  head.  Take  care  not  to 
acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops ;  they  will 
soon  take  all.  In  short,  your  negotiations  have  no  chance 
of  success  unless  the  pope  will  renounce  papacy."  The 
Romanists  fortunately  demanded  too  much.  Not  even 
Melanchthon  could  yield  the  acknowledgment  of  private 
masses,  of  auricular  confession,  and  of  the  meritorious 
character  of  good  works ;  and  the  negotiations  ceased. 
While  they  were  in  progress  the  emperor  tried  to  intimidate 
the  princes  by  calling  the  imperial  troops  into  the  free  city 
of  Augsburg  and  closing  the  gates.  The  landgrave  escaped, 
and  this  frightened  the  Catholics.  Unfortunately  the  Pro 
testants  had  confessed  their  want  of  union  by  presenting 
three  confessions  of  faith  : — the  Lutherans  had  presented 
the  Augsburg  confession ;  Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmin- 
gen,  and  Lindau,  which  sympathized  to  some  extent  with 
Zwingli,  presented  the  Confessio  Tetrapolitana;  and  Zwingli 
had  sent  a  confession  which  was  not,  however,  laid  before 
the  diet.  The  diet  broke  up  with  the  final  decision  that 
the  Protestants  should  have  till  next  spring  to  consider 
whether  they  would  voluntarily  return  to  the  church,  and 
that,  if  they  proved  obstinate,  then  measures  would  be 
taken  for  their  extermination. 

To  the  student  of  Luther's  life  the  diet  of  Augsburg  is 
noteworthy  chiefly  because  it  was  the  occasion  of  the  com 
position  of  the  Augsburg  confession,  or  Augustana,  which 
afterwards  became  the  symbol  or  confession  of  faith  for 
the  Lutheran  Church.  It  was  prepared  by  Melanchthon, 
founding  on  the  fifteen  articles  of  the  Marburg  conference, 
on  the  seventeen  articles  of  Schwabach,  and  on  the  articles 
of  Torgau.  These  various  sets  of  articles  had  been  written 
by  Luther,  and  therefore  the  Augsburg  confession  was 
strictly  Luther's  own.  It  consists  of  two  parts — one 
dogmatic,  in  twenty-one  articles,  which  states  the  principal 
doctrines  of  the  evangelical  church,  beginning  with  the 
Trinity  and  ending  with  the  worship  of  saints ;  and  the 
other  in  seven  articles,  rejecting  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  auricular  confession,  ceremonial 
feasts  and  fasts,  monastic  vows,  and  the  secular  jurisdic 
tion  of  bishops.  It  was  signed  at  Augsburg  by  John  of 


LUTHER 


83 


Saxony,  George  of  Brandenburg,  Ernest  of  Liineburg, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  and  Wolfgang  of  Anhalt,  and  by  the 
representatives  of  the  towns  of  Nuremberg  and  Reutlingen, 
and  during  the  sitting  of  the  diet  by  the  representatives  of 
Kempten,  Heilbronn,  Windsheim,  and  Weissenburg. 
Smalkald  The  edict  of  the  diet  was  published  on  November  19, 
league,  and  the  Protestant  princes,  after  having  overcome  the 
resistance  of  Luther,  met  for  conference  at  Smalkald  on 
Christmas  1530,  and  formed  an  armed  league  for  mutual 
defence.  It  had  been  declared  that  the  edict  would  be 
put  into  execution  in  the  spring  of  1531,  but  when  the 
time  came  the  emperor  had  other  work  on  hand :  France 
had  become  troublesome,  and  the  Turks  were  again  moving. 
He  found  also  that  he  could  not  count  on  the  support  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  princes  in  the  suppression  of  the 
Protestants.  In  presence  of  danger  the  Zwinglians  and 
Lutherans  showed  a  united  front,  and  the  Smalkald 
league  grew  to  be  a  formidable  power.  The  emperor 
resolved  to  come  to  terms  with  his  Protestant  subjects, 
and  the  result  was  the  religious  peace  or  rather  truce  of 
Nuremberg,  which  left  things  as  they  were  until  a  general 
council  should  settle  matters.  The  years  following  this 
peace  of  Nuremberg  were  comparatively  prosperous  to  the 
Reformation.  The  Smalkald  league  was  the  only  organ 
ized  power  in  Germany,  and  very  effectually  prevented 
the  oppression  of  Protestants  by  Roman  Catholics.  Year 
by  year  their  numbers  increased,  and  Luther  saw  the 
evangelical  cause  prospering.  First  Wiirtemberg  was  won 
back  for  young  Duke  Christopher,  who  had  become  a 
Protestant,  and  found  on  his  entry  to  his  dukedom  that  his 
people  were  already  secret  Protestants.  In  northern  and 
central  Germany  whole  districts  embraced  the  evangelical 
doctrines.  Electoral  Brandenburg  and  ducal  Saxony  had 
received  Protestant  rulers,  who  found  their  people  more 
than  willing  to  accept  the  creed  of  their  new  sovereigns. 
At  last  the  only  large  states  that  were  able  to  maintain  a 
firm  front  against  the  Lutheran  doctrines  were  Austria, 
Bavaria,  the  Palatinate,  and  the  great  ecclesiastical  pro 
vinces  on  the  Rhine,  and  even  in  these  regions  visitations 
of  the  churches  had  shown  that  the  people  were  forsaking 
the  old  faith.  It  appeared  that  a  more  serious  defection 
than  any  might  at  any  moment  be  made.  The  elector- 
archbishop  of  Cologne  showed  signs  of  abandoning  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith  and  secularizing  his  vast  episcopal 
territories,  and  this  threatened  defection  made  Charles 
bestir  himself.  If  the  elector  became  a  Protestant  the 
Lutherans  would  be  in  a  majority  in  the  electoral  college, 
and  a  Protestant  emperor  might  he  elected. 

Work  of  During  all  these  years  Luther  was  quietly  at  work  at 
Luther's  Wittenberg,  lecturing,  preaching,  and  writing.  At  first 
he  felt  anxious  lest  civil  war  should  break  out,  and  he  had 
scruples  about  many  of  the  doings,  and  even  about  the 
very  existence,  of  that  league  which  was  really  giving  the 
land  peace.  Under  Philip  of  Hesse  the  Reformation  was 
assuming  a  national  and  political  shape  which  alarmed 
Luther,  who  was  more  than  ever  content  to  keep  out  of 
public  life  and  keep  himself  to  his  books.  He  began 
publishing  his  lectures  on  various  portions  of  Scripture,  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  and  on  the  Psalms  of  Degrees. 
He  wrote  one  or  two  controversial  tracts,  mainly  to  show 
how  the  Reformed  could  not  accept  the  conditions  offered 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  at  Augsburg.  In  1534,  to  his 
great  joy,  the  first  complete  translation  of  the  whole  Bible 
was  published,  and  next  year  appeared  a  new  edition  of 
the  Wittenberg  hymn-book,  containing  several  new  hymns. 
Philip  of  Hesse,  notwithstanding  the  failure  of  the  con 
ference  at  Marburg,  still  thought  that  something  might 
be  done  to  remove  the  theological  differences  between 
Switzerland  and  Saxony,  or  at  least  between  Swabia, 
Strasburg,  and  Wittenberg.  The  divines  of  Switzerland 


later 
vears. 


and  of  South  Germany  had  by  their  publications  made  this 
somewhat  easier.  The  confession  of  Basel,  drafted  by 
(Ecolampadius  (1531),  revised  by  Myconius,  and  published 
by  the  magistracy  of  Basel,  had  declared  that  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  Christ  is  the  food  of  the  soul  to  everlasting  life, 
and  Bucer  and  the  other  South-German  divines  were 
anxious  for  a  union.  Philip  of  Hesse,  Bucer,  and 
Melanchthon  met  in  conference  at  Cassel  to  arrange 
preliminaries,  not  without  suspicion  on  Luther's  part,  for 
he  could  not  trust  Melanchthon  at  a  conference,  and,  as  he 
remarked  to  Justus  Jonas,  he  hated  trimmers  above  all 
men  on  the  earth's  round.  The  result,  however,  was  better 
than  he  had  hoped  for.  Bucer  drew  up  a  short  confession 
which  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  Wittenberg  theologians, 
and  was  favourably  received  by  them,  and  the  South 
German  theologians  were  invited  to  a  further  conference 
at  Wittenberg.  The  meeting  very  fairly  represented  all 
the  German  states,  and  the  result  was  the  document  known 
as  the  Wittenberg  Concordia.  This  document,  mainly 
drawn  up  by  Bucer  and  Melanchthon,  contains  a  statement 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  of  the  supper  expressed 
according  to  the  Lutheran  formula,  with  the  declaration 
that  unworthy  or  faithless  partakers  really  do  not  participate 
in  the  sacrament.  Melanchthon  and  Bucer  had  used  too 
much  diplomatic  skill  in  drawing  up  the  formula,  for  the 
essential  differences  between  the  Wittenberg  and  the 
Strasburg  school  were  not  really  faced  and  explained ; 
they  were  covered  over  with  ambiguous  language.  Nor 
could  the  document  be  accepted  by  the  Swiss ;  but  for  a 
time  it  seemed  as  if  a  satisfactory  basis  of  peace  had  been 
established.  The  general  satisfaction  was  increased  by 
the  publication  of  the  First  Helvetic  Confession,  which, 
while  stating  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  of  the  supper 
in  a  manner  essentially  Zwinglian,  laid  special  emphasis 
on  the  real  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the  elements. 
Luther  in  a  letter  to  Meyer,  burgomaster  of  Basel,  and 
also  in  his  answer  to  the  Reformed  cantons,  acknowledged 
the  earnest  Christianity  of  the  confession,  and  promised  to 
do  his  best  to  promote  union  with  the  Swiss.  It  is  sad 
to  think  that  only  three  years  later  his  old  animosity  to 
Zwingli  and  his  countrymen  broke  out  again  in  his  book 
against  the  Turks,  and  that  he  renewed  the  sacramental 
controversy  with  even  more  than  the  old  fury  in  his  Short 
Confession  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  published  in  1544. 
This  first  Helvetic  confession  was  drawn  up,  however, 
for  another  purpose  than  to  appease  the  Wittenberg 
theologians.  Charles  V.  was  urging  the  pope  to  call  a 
general  council  to  end  the  disputes  within  the  Christian 
church,  and  it  seemed  so  probable  that  a  council  would 
meet  that  the  Protestants  were  everywhere  preparing 
themselves  by  doctrinal  statements  for  taking  their  share 
in  its  work.  The  German  princes  and  their  theologians 
were  also  greatly  exercised  about  this  council,  and  the 
thought  of  it  and  how  Protestants  should  bear  themselves 
in  its  presence  was  filling  Luther's  mind.  He  wrote  several 
short  papers  on  the  subject  in  the  years  1534-39,  begin 
ning  with  the  Convocatio  Goncilii  liberi  and  ending  with 
Von  den  Conciliis  tmd  Kirclien.  The  pope,  Paul  III., 
yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  emperor  and  of  such  liberal 
Roman  Catholics  as  Vergerius,  his  legate  in  Germany,  called 
a  council  to  meet  in  May  1537  at  Mantua,  and  invited 
the  Lutherans  to  be  present.  The  Lutheran  princes  and 
theologians  felt  compelled  to  face  the  question  whether 
they  could  or  could  not  accept  the  invitation,  and  Luther, 
at  the  request  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  prepared  a  creed 
to  be  used  as  a  basis  of  negotiations.  This  was  submitted 
to  the  princes  and  theologians  assembled  at  Smalkald, 
and  was  in  substance  adopted  by  them.  It  is  called  the 
Smalkald  Articles,  and  is  important  because  in  its  state 
ment  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  of  the  supper  it 


84 


L  U  T  —  L  U  T 


repudiates  the  Wittenberg  Cuncord.  The  princes  decided 
that  they  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  a  council  which 
did  not  meet  on  German  soil.  The  emperor,  alarmed  at 
the  progress  of  Protestantism,  and  at  the  united  front 
shown  by  German  Protestants,  and  troubled  by  the  refusal 
of  the  pope  to  consent  to  a  council  to  be  held  out  of  Italy, 
strove  to  bring  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  together 
by  means  of  religious  conferences.  The  first  of  these, 
held  at  Hagenau,  came  to  nothing.  Next  year  (1541) 
the  conference  was  renewed  at  Worms,  when  the  Roman 
Catholic  party  promised  reforms  on  condition  that  the 
Protestants  first  submitted  to  the  pope.  This  condition 
could  not  be  accepted.  Representatives  met  the  same 
year  at  Ratisbon,  and  here  the  conference  was  wrecked 
on  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  but  the  diet  re 
newed  the  terms  of  the  edict  of  Nuremberg  of  1532 — the 
Ratisbon  Interim.  It  was  felt  by  all  parties  that  this 
provisional  state  of  matters  must  come  to  an  end  some 
time,  and  that  the  Protestants  must  either  be  allowed  to 
have  their  own  way  or  win  it  by  fighting.  The  emperor 
was  not  ready  for  war,  and  at  the  diet  at  Spires  in  1544 
it  was  agreed  that  the  Protestants  were  to  maintain  their 
rights  until  a  general  council  met.  Whatever  hopes  they 
might  have  from  such  a  council  were  soon  dissipated. 
The  council  of  Trent  was  opened  that  year,  and  its  earliest 
acts  were  to  refuse  to  pass  the  conciliatory  measures  pro 
posed  by  some  of  the  liberal  Roman  Catholics.  The  em 
peror  still  temporized  and  promised  reforms,  if  not  by  a 
council  then  by  a  national  assembly,  and  many  of  the 
Protestants,  Luther  among  them,  still  hoped  that  matters 
might  settle  themselves  without  civil  war.  This  hope 
inspired  what  was  called  the  Wittenberg  Reformation,  a 
document  setting  forth  how  near  the  evangelical  church 
might  approach  the  Roman  Catholic  and  still  retain  the 
truths  it  had  upheld.  The  year  1546  began,  however, 
with  unmistakable  indications  that  Charles  was  now  ready 
to  strike  a  decisive  blow. 

Luther  had  been  suffering  much  during  the  last  few 
years,  and  he  felt  his  end  to  be  near.  In  the  month  of 
January  1546  he  undertook  a  journey  to  Eisleben  in  very 
inclement  weather,  in  order  to  restore  peace  in  the  family 
of  the  counts  of  Mansfeld ;  he  caught  a  violent  cold,  but 
preached  four  times,  and  took  all  the  time  an  active  part 
in  the  work  of  conciliation.  On  the  17th  of  February  he 
felt  that  his  release  was  at  hand ;  and  at  Eisleben,  where 
he  was  born,  he  died,  in  faith  and  prayer,  on  the  following 
day.  Nothing  can  be  more  edifying  than  the  scene  pre 
sented  by  the  last  days  of  Luther,  of  which  we  have  the 
most  authentic  and  detailed  accounts.  When  dying,  he 
collected  his  last  strength  and  offered  up  the  following 
prayer  : — "  Heavenly  Father,  eternal,  merciful  God,  thou 
hast  revealed  to  me  Thy  dear  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  Him  I  have  taught,  Him  I  have  confessed,  Him 
I  love  as  my  Saviour  and  Redeemer,  whom  the  wicked 
persecute,  dishonour,  and  reprove.  Take  my  poor  soul  up 
to  Thee  ! "  Then  two  of  his  friends  put  to  him  the  solemn 
question, —  "Reverend  Father,  do  you  die  in  Christ  and 
in  the  doctrine  you  have  constantly  preached?"  He 
answered  by  an  audible  and  joyful  "  Yes " ;  and,  re 
peating  the  verse,  "  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  commend 
my  spirit,"  he  expired  peacefully,  without  a  struggle,  on 
the  18th  of  February  1546,  at  four  o'clock  in  the  after 
noon. 

The  books  on  the  life  and  work  of  Luther  are  so  very  numerous 
that  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  mention  one  or  two.  The  best 
editions  of  Luther's  works  are  (1)  the  Wittenberg,  1539-58,  19 
vols.  folio  (7  in  Latin  and  12  in  German  ;  Melanchthon  wrote  the 
prefaces,  and  inserted  a  life  of  Luther  in  the  beginning  of  the  2d 
vol.)  ;  (2)  Walch's  edition,  24  vols.  4to,  1740-53  ;  (3)  the  Erlangen 
edition,  65  vols.  and  2  vols.  of  indices,  in  all  67  vols.,  in  German, 
and  33  vols.  in  Latin,  and  not  yet  complete,  1826-73  ;  (4)  the  last 


edition  is  from  Frankfort-on-the-Muin,  publishing  at  the  expense 
of  the  Prussian  Government. 

Luther's  letters  have  been  collected  and  edited  by  (1)  DC  Wette 
and  Seidemann,  L.  Bricfe,  6  vols.,  1825-56  ;  (2)  this  emendated 
by  Burkhardt,  Luther's  Brief wcchsel,  1866  ;  (3)  Seidemann,  Luther- 
brief  e,  1859. 

The  Table  Talk  was  translated  (1)  by  William  Ilazlitt,  1848, 
and  (2)  by  Bindseil,  Colloquia,  &c.,  3  vols.,  last  published  1866. 

Lives  of  Luther. — (1)  J.  Mathesius,  Historic  von  D.  M.  Luther  s, 
&c.,  Nuremberg,  1566;  (2) Cochlaeus,  Actact  Scripta Luther i,  Paris, 
1565  (Roman  Catholic  and  abusive) ;  (3)  Merle  d'Aubigne,  Hist, 
of  the  lief.,  vols.  i.-iii.,  1838,  &c.  ;  (4)  Michelet,  Life  of  Luther 
(his  statements  about  himself  collected),  translated  by  Hazlitt,  1846 
and  1862  ;  (5)  Croly,  Life  of  Luther,  1857  ;  (6)  Julius  Kostlin, 
Martin  Luther,  sein  Leben,  &c.,  2  vols.,  1875.  The  last  is  the  best ; 
it  has  been  summarized  for  popular  reading  in  one  volume,  with 
interesting  illustrations,  1882. 

The  Times  of  Luther. — (1)  Ranke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  Zeitalter 
d.  Ref.,  6  vols.,  1st  ed.  1839-47,  reached  a  6th  ed.,  Eng.  transl.  by 
Sarah  Austin,  1845-47  ;  (2)  Lb'scher,  Reformations  Akta,  Leipsic, 
1720  ;  (3)  Hausser,  The  Period  of  the.  Reformation,  2  vols.,  1873  ; 
(4)  Seebohm,  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution,  1877  (a  very  short 
but  good  and  clear  summary  of  events).  (T.  M.  L.) 

LUTHERANS  are  that  body  of  Christians  who  adopted 
the  principles  of  Martin  Luther  in  his  opposition  to  the 
Roman  Church,  to  the  Swiss  theologians,  and  to  the  sectaries 
of  Reformation  times.  They  called  themselves  "  Evan 
gelical"  in  distinction  from  the  "Reformed"  or  followers 
of  Calvin,  and  formed  one  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the 
Reformation  Church.  In. the  early  days  of  controversy 
the  stricter  Lutherans  held  it  to  be  their  peculiar  function 
to  preserve  the  status  religionis  in  Germania  per  Lutherum 
iiistauratus  and  to  watch  over  the  depositum  Jesu  Christi 
which  Luther  had  left  in  their  charge.  Luther  himself- was 
much  more  fitted  to  be  a  reformer  and  preacher  than  an 
exponent  of  a  scheme  of  theology  or  the  organizer  of  an 
ecclesiastical  system.  His  wonderfully  sympathetic  nature 
was  easily  moved,  and  his  own  liking  and  disliking  ruled 
him  too  strongly  to  make  him  able  to  expound  in  calm 
fashion  the  whole  round  of  theology,  giving  to  each  doc 
trine  its  proper  place  in  the  system.  His  nominalist  train 
ing,  his  quietism  got  from  the  mystics  of  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  his  occasional  fits  of  morbid  melancholy,  all  kept 
him  from  looking  at  the  whole  system  of  Christian  doc 
trine,  and  made  him  intensify  the  value  and  importance  of 
special  aspects  of  truth.  The  early  Lutheran  theology 
reflected  the  character  of  its  founder.  It  lacked  systematic 
completeness,  more  especially  in  its  failure  to  construct  a 
comprehensive  doctrine  of  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
it  swayed  from  side  to  side  in  violent  controversies,  until  at 
length  out  of  the  conflicts  emerged  the  Form  of  Concord, 
which,  it  was  hoped,  would  succeed  in  pacifying  the  church. 
The  dogmatic  symbols  of  the  Lutheran  Church  are  usually 
said  to  include  nine  separate  creeds,  three  of  which  are 
taken  from  the  early  Christian  Church  while  six  are  the 
production  of  the  16th  century.  They  are  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Nicceo  Constantinopolitan  Creed  in  its  Western 
form  (i.e.,  with  the  filioque],  the  so-called  Athanasian 
Creed,  the  Augsburg  Confession  or  Confessio  Augustana, 
the  Apology  for  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Smalkald 
Articles,  Luther's  two  Catechisms,  and  the  Form  of  Con 
cord.  These  nine  confessions  together  make  up  the  Liber 
Concordise  of  the  Lutheran  Church ;  but  only  the  three 
pre-Reformation  creeds  and  the  Augsburg  confession  are 
recognized  by  all  Lutherans.  Luther's  catechisms,  espe 
cially  the  shorter  of  the  two,  have  been  almost  universally 
accepted,  but  the  Form  of  Concord  was  expressly  rejected 
by  many  Lutheran  churches.  The  Augsburg  Confession 
and  Luther's  Shorter  Catechism  may  be  said  to  contain  the 
distinctive  principles  of  Lutheranism  which  all  Lutherans 
unite  to  maintain,  but,  as  the  principal  controversies  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  all  arose  after  the  publication  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  and  were  fought  out  between  men 
who  united  in  accepting  that  symbol,  it  does  not  contain 


LUTHERANS 


85 


all  that  is  distinctively  Lutheran.  The  Augsburg  Confes 
sion  itself  perhaps  owed  its  universal  recognition  to  the 
fact  that  it  existed  in  two  forms  which  vary  slightly  in  the 
way  in  which  they  state  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  of 
the  supper,  the  variata  and  the  invariata ;  and  this  also 
bears  witness  to  the  lack  of  dogmatic  coherence  which  is  a 
characteristic  of  Lutheranism.  Melanchthon's  Hypotyposes 
or  Theological  Commonplaces  (first  published  in  1521)  may 
also  rank  along  with  these  creeds  as  an  authoritative  ex 
position  of  Lutheran  theology ;  and  the  changes  it  under 
went  in  its  successive  editions  show  the  incompleteness  of 
the  system. 

The  earliest  controversy  which  divided  the  Lutheran  Church 
arose  in  Luther's  lifetime  and  lasted  till  1560  (1537-60).  It 
sprang  out  of  differences  of  opinion  about  the  precise  meaning  to  be 
attached  to  the  term  law  in  Luther's  famous  distinction  between 
law  and  gospel.  According  to  Luther,  and  the  distinction  runs 
through  all  Lutheranism,  law  and  gospel  are  the  two  factors  which 
bring  home  to  the  individual  experience  the  knowledge  of  salvation. 
Law  is  the  rule  of  life  given  by  God  and  accompanied  by  threaten 
ing  and  promise,  which  counts  on  fulfilment  from  selfish  motives, 
threatens,  terrifies,  and  so  produces  contrition  ;  while  the  gospel, 
which  is  the  message  of  salvation,  conies  after  the  law  has  done  its 
work,  and  soothes.  In  this  description  the  term  law  has  a  distinct 
and  definite  meaning  ;  it  signifies  legal  injunction  or  command  ; 
and  Luther  and  his  followers  were  accustomed  to  say,  using  law  in 
this  definite  way,  that  Christ  was  not  under  the  dominion  of  the 
law,  and  that  Christ's  people  are  also  free  from  its  restraints.  They 
said  that  believers  ascend  to  the  Christian  life  only  when  they  have 
transcended  a  rule  of  life  which  counts  on  selfish  motives  for 
obedience.  The  word  law  manifestly  means  more  than  Luther  put 
into  this  definition,  and  certain  Lutherans  who  accepted  Luther's 
distinction  between  law  and  gospel  did  not  understand  his  limita 
tion  of  the  term  law,  and  taught  that  believers  were  not  bound  by 
the  moral  law.  These  autinomians,  of  whom  Agricola  was  chief, 
took  Luther's  statements  about  law  in  the  sense  of  legal  injunction, 
and  applied  them  to  law  in  the  sense  of  ethical  rule.  The  con 
fusion  perplexed  the  Lutheran  Church  for  more  than  twenty  years. 
The  debates  which  harassed  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  Armi- 
nian  controversy,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  Jansenist 
controversy,  appeared  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  three  separate 
disputes  lasting  from  about  1550  to  1580.  In  these  discussions 
the  stricter  Lutherans  were  on  the  one  side  and  Melanchthon  with 
his  followers  on  the  other.  The  first  dispute  was  about  the  relation 
of  good  works  to  conversion.  George  Major,  founding  on  an  ex 
pression  in  Melanchthon's  Commonplaces  (ed.  1543),  said  that  good 
works  were  both  necessary  and  useful  to  holiness.  He  was  attacked 
by  Mat.  Flacius  and  Nic.  Amsdorf,  and  after  a  long  and  tedious 
discussion,  in  the  course  of  which  it  was  made  plain  that  both  sides 
were  sadly  in  want  of  general  principles  to  guide  them,  and  that 
important  words  were  used  ambiguously,  George  Major's  proposition 
was  condemned  because  it  savoured  of  Pelagianism.  The  problem 
took  a  new  form  in  the  Synergist  controversy,  which  discussed  the 
nature  of  the  first  impulse  in  conversion,  and  in  the  controversy 
about  original  sin  which  followed.  Pfeffinger  taught  that  the  first 
impulse  in  conversion  came  from  grace  and  was  due  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  but  he  said  that  this  impulse  and  its  effect  might  be  com 
pared  with  the  reviving  of  a  man  apparently  dead.  According  to 
the  strict  Lutherans  the  sinner  was  not  apparently  but  actually 
dead,  and  grace  was  not  merely  the  occasion,  it  was  also  the  actual 
cause,  of  the  new  life.  Flacius,  who  had  made  this  last  assertion, 
which  seemed  to  be  generally  approved  of,  started  a  fresh  controversy 
by  his  assertion  that  sin  was  part  of  the  substance  of  man  in  his 
present  natural  condition,  and  that  man  was  no  more  able  to  co 
operate  with  grace  in  conversion  than  was  a  stick  or  a  stone.  This 
was  contradicted  by  Striegel,  a  follower  of  Melanchthon,  who 
asserted  that  sin  had  not  totally  destroyed  man's  ethical  nature, 
but  that  grace  by  its  action  changed  what  was  morally  insensible 
into  what  was  morally  living  and  sensible,  so  that  there  could  be 
an  actual  synergy  or  co-operation  between  God's  grace  and  man's 
will. 

The  controversy  raised  by  Andrew  Osiander  was  much  more  im 
portant,  and  revealed  the  lack  in  Lutheranism  of  a  systematic 
doctrine  of  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Osiander  felt  that  Lutheran 
dogmatic  had  omitted  to  make  adequate  answer  to  a  most  important 
practical  question  in  theology,  how  Christ's  death  on  the  cross 
could  be  so  brought  into  connexion  with  each  individual  believer 
as  to  be  the  ground  of  his  actual  justification.  The  mediaeval 
church  had  spanned  the  centuries  by  their  doctrine  of  the  prolonga 
tion  of  Christ's  death  throughout  time  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass, 
but  he  could  not  see  any  such  real  connexion  of  time  in  Luther's 
theology.  He  proposed  to  get  rid  of  the  difficulty  by  saying  that 
justification  is  a  real  work  in  the  believer  done  by  that  same  Christ 
who  had  died  so  many  centuries  before.  He  distinguished  between 


redemption,  which  lie  said  was  the  result  of  the  historical  work  of 
Christ  upon  the  cross,  and  justification,  which  was  another  work  of 
the  same  Redeemer  within  the  individual,  and  was  the  influence 
renewed  daily  of  the  Saviour  upon  each  believer.  The  controversy 
which  followed  was  full  of  ambiguities  and  misunderstandings,  but 
out  of  it  rose  two  distinct  theories,  one  of  which  was  generally 
adopted  by  the  Lutherans,  while  the  other  has  become  a  character 
istic  of  Reformed  or  Calvinist  theology.  Striegel  declared  that  the 
principal  effect  of  the  work  of  Christ  upon  the  cross  was  to  change 
the  attitude  of  God  towards  the  whole  human  race,  and  that  in 
consequence  whenever  men  come  into  being  and  have  faith  they 
can  take  advantage  of  that  change  of  attitude,  the  ground  of  their 
assurance  being  that  because  of  what  Christ  did  God  regards  all 
men  benevolently.  Calvinist  divines,  on  the  other  hand,  found  in 
Osiander's  criticism  the  starting  point  of  that  close  connexion 
between  Christ's  work  and  His  redeemed  which  is  expressed  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  limited  reference  in  the  atonement. 

These  controversies  all  implied  more  or  less  vagueness  in  the 
earlier  dogmatic  teaching  of  Luther.  Others,  however,  arose  from 
what  may  be  called  the  distinctive  teaching  of  Luther  upon  the  sacra 
ment  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  what  was  implied  therein.  In  the 
article  LUTHER  it  is  stated  that  Luther,  at  least  after  the  peasants' 
war,  held  strongly  a  theory  of  the  connexion  between  the  elements 
(the  bread  and  wine)  and  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacra 
ment  of  the  supper  which  has  been  called  consubstantiation ,  and 
that  this  theory  depended  not  merely  on  certain  scholastic  defini 
tions  of  bodily  presence  but  also  on  the  supposition  that  the  attri 
bute  of  ubiquity  belonged  to  the  glorified  body  of  Christ.  A  large 
number  of  Lutherans,  followers  of  Melanchthon,  were  inclined  to 
depart  from  these  views  and  approach  the  more  reasonable  opinions 
of  Calvin,  and  this  occasioned  controversies  about  Crypto-Calvinism 
and  about  Christology.  Jhe  university  of  Jena  was  the  theological 
headquarters  of  the  stricter  Lutherans,  while  Wittenberg  was  the 
centre  of  the  Philippists  or  Crypto-Calvinists,  as  the  followers  of 
Melanchthon  were  called.  At  first  the  controversy  mainly  gathered 
round  the  questions  of  the  corporeal  presence,  the  oral  manducation, 
and  the  literal  eating  of  Christ's  body  by  unbelievers  as  well  as  by 
the  truly  faithful,  but  it  soon  included  discussions  on  the  person 
of  Christ,  and  into  these  discussions  Reformed  theologians  were 
brought.  The  result  was  various  conferences  at  Maulbronn  (1564), 
which  only  confirmed  both  parties  in  their  peculiar  opinions  ;  at 
Dresden  (1571),  where  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  Wittenberg 
and  Leipsic  renounced  the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body 
and  agreed  with  the  Calvini'sts  ;  and  elsewhere.  It  seemed  as  if 
the  Lutheran  Church  was  about  to  fall  in  pieces. 

Out  of  these  disputes  came  the  Form  of  Concord,  due  principally  to 
Jacob  Andre*  of  Tubingen,  to  Martin  Chemnitz  of  Brunswick,  and 
to  Nicolas  Selnecker  of  Leipsic.  Various  theological  conferences  were 
held,  and  various  articles  of  agreement  more  or  less  successful  were 
framed,  of  which  the  most  notable  was  the  Torgau  Boole  of  1576  ; 
and  at  last  in  1577  the  Form  of  Concord  was  published,  and  after 
much  discussion  and  negotiation  was  adopted  by  most  of  the 
Lutherans  in  Germany.  Its  recognition  was  mainly  due  to  the 
exertions  of  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony  It  was  also  adopted  by 
the  Lutheran  churches  of  Sweden  in  1593,  and  of  Hungary  in 
1597.  It  was  rejected  by  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Denmark  and 
by  the  churches  of  Hesse,  of  Anhalt,  of  Pomerania,  and  of  several 
imperial  cities.  It  was  at  first  adopted  and  afterwards  rejected  by 
Brunswick,  by  the  Palatinate,  and  by  Brandenburg.  The  German 
churches  which  refused  to  adopt  it  became  for  the  most  part 
Reformed  or  Calvinist  ;  and  the  Form  of  Concord,  which  ended  the 
more  violent  theological  controversies  among  the  Lutherans,  greatly 
decreased  their  numbers  and  territorial  extent. 

The  divided  state  of  Germany  in  the  16th  century,  aided  by  the 
maxim  of  the  peace  of  Augsburg  which  gave  Protestantism  a  legal 
standing,  and  by  the  consistorial  system  of  ecclesiastical  rule  which 
followed  in  consequence,  divided  the  Lutherans  in  Germany  into  a 
number  of  separate  churches  as  numerous  as  the  principalities.  At 
the  peace  of  Augsburg  the  adherents  to  the  Augsburg  Confession 
were  recognized  legally  as  having  a  right  to  exist  within  the 
German  empire,  and  the  power  of  determining  whether  the  Roman 
Catholic  or  Lutheran  confessions  should  be  the  recognized  creed  of 
the  state  was  left,  with  some  reservation,  in  the  hands  of  tliQ 
supreme  civil  authority  in  each  separate  principality  (cujus  regio 
ejus  religio].  This  virtually  gave  the  direction  of  the  church  of 
each  German  state  into  the  hands  of  the  supreme  civil  power 
therein  ;  it  belonged  to  the  princes  in  the  various  principalities  and 
to  the  municipal  councils  in  the  fiee  imperial  cities.  This  legal 
recognition  of  the  supreme  authority  of  the  civil  power  in  ecclesi 
astical  affairs  was  intensified  by  the  adoption  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  the  consistorial  system  of  church  government,  which  was 
the  distinctive  mark  of  the  Lutheran  as  opposed  to  the  Reformed 
Church.  The  consistorial  system  took  a  great  variety  of  forms,  but 
it  had  one  common  characteristic  :  it  simply  transferred  the  jus 
episcopale  from  the  bishops  to  the  civil  authorities,  and,  as  the 
bishops  ruled  their  dioceses  in  ecclesiastical  and-  other  matters  by 
means  of  councils  or  consistories  appointed  by  themselves,  so  in  the 


86 


L  U  T  —  L  U  X 


Lutheran  Church  these  old  episcopal  consistories  were  transformed 
into  councils  whose  members  were  appointed  by  the  civil  rulers. 
Thus  each  petty  German  state  had  its  own  church  with  its  special 
organization  and  peculiar  regulations.  Richter  in  his  Evangelische 
Kirchenordnungendcs\$ten  J  ahrhundcrts  (2  vols.,  1846)  has  collected 
more  than  one  hundred  and  eighty  separate  constitutions  of  churches 
adhering  to  the  Augsburg  Confession.  This  minute  subdivision 
makes  it  almost  impossible  to  recognize  any  unity  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  save  what  comes  from  the  profession  of  a  common  creed. 

The  publication  of  the  Form  of  Concord  drew  the  strict  Lutherans 
more  together,  and  set  over  against  them  in  Germany  a  Calvinist 
Church,  and  the  divided  state  of  Protestantism  greatly  weakened 
its  strength  in  the  religious  wars  of  the  17th  century.  As  the 
smaller  German  states  came  together  in  larger  principalities  the 
awkwardness  of  the  separate  Protestant  churches  was  more  keenly 
felt.  Many  attempts  were  made  by  conferences,  as  at  Leipsic 
(1631),  Thorn  (1645),  Cassel  (1661),  to  unite  Lutherans  and 
Reformed,  though  without  success.  At  length  the  union  of  the 
two  churches  was  effected  mainly  by  the  force  of  the  civil  authority 
in  Nassau  (1817),  in  Prussia  (1817),  in  Hesse  (1823),  in  Anhalt 
Dessau  (1827).  These  unions  for  tlie  most  part  aimed,  not  at  in 
corporating  the  two  churches  in  doctrine  and  worship,  but  at 
bringing  under  one  government  the  two  confessions,  and  permitting 
every  congregation  to  use  at  pleasure  either  the  Lutheran  or  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism.  They  were  sometimes  accompanied,  as  in 
Prussia,  by  a  separation  of  the  stricter  Lutherans,  who  formed 
themselves  into  dissenting  churches.  The  separation  in  Prussia 
was  caused  mainly  by  a  new  liturgy  which  Frederick  William  III. 
forced  on  the  church,  and  which  the  dissenters  or  Old  Lutherans 
refused  to  use.  The  divisions  caused  in  this  way  were  at  first 
repressed  but  were  afterwards  tolerated,  and  have  reproduced  them 
selves  in  the  flourishing  Lutheran  Church  of  the  United  States. 

See  Ritschl,  "  Die  Entstehung  der  Lutherischen  Kirche  "  (ZeitscJi. 
fiir  Kirchengeschichte,  i.  1);  Hundeshagen,  Ecitrageziir  Kirchenver- 
fussungs  Geschichte,  &c. ,  1864;  Dorner's  History  of  Protestant 
Theology  ;  Bering,  Geschichte  der  kirchlichcn  Unionsversuche  seit 
die  Reformation,  1836-38  ;  Sack,  Die  Evangelische  Kirche  und  die 
Union,  1861.  (T.  M,  L.) 

LUTON",  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough  of 
Bedfordshire,  England,  is  situated  in  a  fine  valley  near 
the  source  of  the  Lea,  31  miles  north-west  of  London. 
The  parish  church  of  St  Mary,  dating  from  the  14th 
century,  a  very  fine  building  in  the  Decorated  Norman 
and  Later  English  styles,  contains  a  large  number  of 
old  monuments  and  brasses.  Its  entire  length  is  182 
feet,  the  width  of  nave  and  aisles  57  feet,  arid  the  width 
of  the  transepts  from  north  to  south  101  feet.  On  the 
process  of  restoration,  begun  in  1865,  £6000  has  been 
expended.  The  other  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
town-hall,  the  corn  exchange,  the  court-house,  and  the 
plait  hall.  Luton  is  the  principal,  seat  of  the  straw-plait 
manufacture  in  England.  The  industry  originated  in  the 
colony  of  straw-plaiters  transplanted  by  James  I.  from 
Scotland,  whither  they  had  been  brought  from  Lorraine  by 
Queen  Mary.  Though  the  town  is  very  ancient,  it  was 
first  incorporated  in  February  1876.  The  population, 
which  in  1871  was  17,317,  was  23,959  in  1881. 

LUTZK,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Volhynia,  on  the  Styr,  162  miles  west-north-west  of 
Szitomir,  and  5  miles  from  the  Kivertzy  station  of  the 
railway  between  Kieff  and  Brest-Litovsky.  It  is  a  very 
old  town,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  in  the  7th  century  ; 
in  the  llth  century  it  was  known  under  the  name  of 
Luchesk,  and  was  the  chief  town  of  an  independent 
principality.  In  the  15th  century  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  became  a  wealthy  town,  but  during  the  wars 
between  Russia  and  Poland  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th 
century,  and  especially  after  the  extermination  of  its 
40,000  inhabitants,  it  lost  its  importance.  In  1791  it  was 
taken  by  Russia.  It  is  now  a  rather  poor  town,  situated 
in  an  unfertile  district,  and  its  11,500  inhabitants,  many  of 
them  Jews,  live  mainly  by  shipping  goods  on  the  Styr. 

LUXEMBOURG,  FfiANgois  HENRI  DE  MONTMOKENCY- 
BOUTTEVILLE,  Due  DE  (1628-1695),  marshal  of  France, 
the  comrade  and  successor  of  the  great  Conde",  was  born 
at  Paris  on  January  8,  1628.  His  father,  the  Comte  de 
Montmorency-Boutteville,  had  been  executed  six  months 


before  his  birth  for  killing  the  Marquis  de  Beuvron  in  a 
duel,  but  his  aunt,  the  Princesse  de  Conde",  recognizing  in 
him  the  last  male  heir  of  her  great  family  De  Montmorency, 
took  charge  of  him,  and  educated  him  with  her  son,  the 
Due  d'Enghien.  The  young  Montmorency  attached  him 
self  enthusiastically  to  his  cousin,  and  shared  his  successes 
and  reverses  throughout  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1659  and  was  pardoned,  and  Conde, 
who  was  then  much  attached  to  the  Duchesse  de  Chatillon, 
Montmorency's  sister,  contrived  the  marriage  of  his  adherent 
and  cousin  to  the  greatest  heiress  in  France,  the  Princesse 
de  Tingry,  after  which  he  was  created  Due  de  Luxembourg 
and  peer  of  France.  At  the  opening  of  the  war  of  the 
devolution,  1667-68,  Conde,  and  consequently  Luxem 
bourg,  had  no  command,  but  in  the  second  campaign  he 
served  as  one  of  Condi's  lieutenants  in  the  conquest  of 
Franche  Comte'.  During  the  four  years  of  peace  which 
followed  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Luxembourg 
diligently  cultivated  the  favour  of  Louvois,  and  in  1672 
received  orders  to  commence  hostilities  with  the  Dutch. 
He  defeated  the  prince  of  Orange,  whom  he  was  to  beat 
again  and  again,  at  Woerden,  and  ravaged  Holland,  and 
in  1673  made  his  famous  retreat  from  Utrecht  with  only 
20,000  men  in  face  of  70.000,  an  exploit  which  placed  him 
in  the  first  rank  of  generals.  In  1674  he  was  made  captain 
of  the  gardes  du  corps,  and  in  1675  was  made  marshal  of 
France.  In  1676  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army 
of  the  Rhine,  but  failed  to  keep  the  duke  of  Lorraine  out 
of  Philipsburg ;  in  1677  he  stormed  Valenciennes  ;  and  in 
1678  he  defeated  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  attacked 
him  at  St  Denis  after  the  signature  of  the  peace  of 
Nimeguen.  His  reputation  was  now  at  a  great  height, 
and  it  is  commonly  reputed  that  he  quarrelled  with 
Louvois,  who  managed  to  mix  him  up  in  the  confessions 
of  the  poisoners,  and  get  him  sent  to  the  Bastille. 
Rousset  in  his  Histoire  de  Louvois  has,  however,  shown 
that  this  quarrel  is  probably  apocryphal.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  Luxembourg  spent  some  months  of  1680 
in  the  Bastille,  but  on  his  release  took  up  his  post  at 
court  as  capitaine  des  gardes,  and  was  in  no  way  dis 
graced.  When  the  war  of  1690  broke  out,  the  king  and 
Louvois  also  recognized  that  Luxembourg  was  the  only 
general  they  had  fit  to  cope  with  the  prince  of  Orange,  and 
accordingly  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  army  of 
Flanders.  On  July  1,  1690,  he  defeated  the  prince  of 
Waldeck  at  Fleurus  with  the  loss  of  14,000  men  and 
49  pieces  of  cannon.  In  the  following  year  he  com 
manded  the  army  which  covered  the  king,  who  was 
besieging  Mons,  and  defeated  William  III.  of  England  at 
Leuze  on  September  18,  1691.  Again  in  the  next  cam 
paign  he  covered  the  king's  siege  of  Namur,  and  utterly 
defeated  William  at  Steenkerk  on  June  5,  1692  ;  and  on 
July  29,  1693,  he  won  his  greatest  victory  over  his  old 
adversary  at  Neerwinden,  in  which  he  took  76  pieces  of 
cannon  and  80  flags.  No  wonder  he  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  at  Paris  by  all  but  the  king,  who  looked  coldly 
on  a  relative  and  adherent  of  the  Condes.  He  conceived 
himself  strong  enough  to  undertake  an  enterprise  which 
St  Simon  describes  at  length  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
Memoirs  :  instead  of  ranking  as  eighteenth  peer  of  France 
according  to  his  patent  of  1661,  he  claimed  through  his  wife 
to  be  Due  de  Piney  of  an  old  creation  of  1571,  which  would 
place  him  second  on  the  roll.  The  whole  affair  is  described 
with  St  Simon's  usual  keen  interest  in  all  that  concerned 
the  peerage,  and  was  chiefly  checked  through  his  assiduity. 
In  the  campaign  of  1694,  possibly  owing  to  this  check, 
Luxembourg  did  but  little  in  Flanders,  except  his 
well-known  march  from  Vignamont  to  Tournay  in  face 
of  the  enemy.  On  his  return  to  Versailles  for  the 
winter  he  fell  ill,  and  died  on  January  4,  1695.  In  his 


L  U  X  — L  U  X 


87 


last  moments  he  was  attended  by  the  famous  Jesuit  priest 
Bourdaloue,  who  said  on  his  "death,  "  I  have  not  lived  his 
life,  but  I  would  wish  to  die  his  death."  The  holy  father 
certainly  had  not  lived  like  Luxembourg,  whose  morals 
were  conspicuously  bad  even  in  those  times,  and  whose  life 
had  shown  very  slight  signs  of  religious  conviction.  But 
as  a  general  he  was  Conde's  grandest  pupil.  Utterly 
slothful,  like  Conde",  in  the  management  of  a  campaign, 
and  therein  differing  from  Turenne,  at  the  moment  of 
battle  he  seemed  seized  with  happy  inspirations,  against 
which  no  ardour  of  William's  and  no  steadiness  of  Dutch 
or  English  soldiers  could  stand.  His  death  and  Catinat's 
disgrace  close  the  second  period  of  the  military  history  of 
the  reign  of  Louis.  XIV.,  and  Catinat  and  Luxembourg, 
though  inferior  to  Conde  and  Turenne,  were  very  far 
superior  to  Tallard  and  Villeroi.  He  was  distinguished 
for  a  pungent  wit.  One  of  his  best  retorts  referred  to 
his  deformity.  "I  never  can  beat  that  cursed  hump 
back,"  William  was  reputed  to  have  said  of  him.  "  How 
does  he  know  I  have  a  hump1?"  retorted  Luxembourg, 
"he  has  never  seen  my  back."  He  left  four  sons,  the 
youngest  of  whom  was  a  marshal  of  France  as  Mare'chal 
de  Montmorency. 

See  the  various  memoirs  and  histories  of  the  time.  There  are 
some  interesting  facts  in  Desormcaux's  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de 
Montmorency.  Camille  Rousset's  Louvois  should  also  be  studied. 

LUXEMBURG,  a  grand-duchy  of  Europe,  governed 
under  a  special  constitution  by  the  king  of  the  Netherlands, 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Rhenish  Prussia,  S.  by 
Lorraine  and  the  French  department  Meurthe-et-Moselle, 
and  W.  by  Belgian  Luxemburg.  It  measures  32  miles 
from  Hartelingen  to  Rosport,  both  on  the  Sure,  and  50 
miles  from  Rumelange  in  the  south  to  Weiler  in  the 
north.  The  surface  contains  639,000  acres  (998  square 
miles),  of  which  293,554  acres  are  arable,  61,033  meadow- 
land,  143,812  woodland,  54,135  coppice,  and  540  vine 
yards.  The  hills  in  the  south  of  the  duchy  are  a  con 
tinuation  of  the  Lorraine  plateau ;  and  the  northern 
districts  are  crossed  in  all  directions  by  outrunners  from 
the  Ardennes.  With  the  exception  of  the  Chiers,  which 
flows  into  the  Meuse  near  Sedan  after  a  course  of  50 
miles,  the  streams  all  drain  into  the  Moselle,  which  forms 
the  boundary  between  Luxemburg  and  the  Rhine  province 
for  about  20  miles.  The  Sure  or  Sauer,  the  most  important 
stream  in  the  duchy,  rises  at  Vaux-les-Rosieres  in  Belgian 
Luxemburg,  crosses  the  duchy,  and  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  from  the  confluence  of  the  Our  till  it  joins  the 
Moselle  after  a  course  of  50  miles,  during  which  it  receives 
the  Wiltz,  the  Woltz,  the  Alzet,  &c.  At  Mondorf  there 
are  mineral  wells  and  a  bathing  establishment.  The  soil 
of  Luxemburg  is  generally  good  ;  the  southern  districts  are 
on  the  whole  the  most  fertile  as  well  as  the  most  populous. 
Building  materials  of  all  sorts  are  obtained  throughout  the 
duchy,  and  in  the  south  there  is  iron- ore  of  fair  quality — 
the  mining  area  at  present  occupying  from  8000  to  10,000 
acres.  Galena  is  worked  on  the  frontier  between  Ober- 
wampach  and  Longville,  and  antimony  at  Gosdorf  near 
Wiltz.  Since  1842  Luxemburg  has  been  included  in  the 
Zollverein,  and  its  principal  dealings  are,  consequently, 
with  Germany.  Besides  the  iron  furnaces, — situated  all 
of  them  in  the  south  near  the  Lorraine  plateau, — the 
industrial  establishments  of  the  country  comprise  a  large 
number  of  tanneries,  a  dozen  weaving  factories,  an 
important  glove-making  factory,  a  pottery,  paper-mills 
for  all  sorts  of  paper,  breweries  and  distilleries,  and  two 
sugar  refineries.  A  German  patois  mixed  with  French 
words  is  spoken  throughout  the  country ;  'but  French, 
which  is  universally  employed  by  the  commercial  com 
munity,  is  also  the  common  speech  of  all  classes  on  the 
French  and  Belgian  frontiers.  Though  perfect  liberty 


of  worship  prevails,  Roman  Catholicism  is  almost  the 
sole  form  of  religion  in  the  duchy,  the  only  dissenters 
worthy  of  note  being  the  Protestant  Prussian  employe's  and 
about  three  hundred  Jewish  families.  The  government 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  grand-duke,  who  sanctions  and 
promulgates  the  laws.  Between  1850  and  1879  the  king 
of  the  Netherlands  was  represented  in  his  grand-ducal  func 
tions  by  his  brother  Prince  Henry  ;  but  since  the  prince's 
death  he  has  resumed  the  personal  direction  of  affairs. 
The  grand-duchy  is  a  neutral  and  independent  state,  and 
its  crown  hereditary  in  the  Nassau  family  (Treaty  of 
London,  March  11,  1867).  A  house  of  representatives 
and  a  council  of  state,  named  by  the  grand-duke,  compose 
the  administrative  body.  The  representatives,  to  the 
number  of  forty-four,  are  chosen  by  the  people  in  the  pro 
portion  of  one  for  from  4000  to  5500  inhabitants.  No 
law  can  be  passed  without  the  consent  of  the  house  of 
representatives.  Bills  are  introduced  by  the  grand-duke, 
but  the  house  has  also  the  right  of  initiative.  A  single 
battalion  (150)  of  Luxemburg  chasseurs  composes  the 
grand-ducal  army, — all  voluntary  recruits.  The  gendar 
merie  also  consists  of  about  150  men.  There  are  two 
courts  of  first  instance  in  the  duchy,' — one  at  Luxemburg, 
the  other  at  Diekirch, — and  a  high  court  and  a  court  of 
appeal,  both  at  Luxemburg.  Criminals  appear  before  the 
court  of  assize  at  Luxemburg.  By  grand-ducal  decree  the 
order  of  the  Crown  of  Oak  was  instituted  for  the  duchy, 
December  29,  1841,  and  that  of  the  Golden  Lion,  February 
5,  1858.  The  communal  councils  are  under  the  supervision 
of  the  district  commissioners,  who  are  subject  in  turn  to 
the  minister  of  the  interior.  The  administration  of  the 
town  of  Luxemburg  depends  immediately  on  the  Govern 
ment.  Education  is  in  a  flourishing  state  :  there  are  642 
primary  schools  attended  by  31,000  pupils;  Luxemburg 
has  a  normal  school  and  an  athenaeum  ;  Diekirch  and 
Echternach  have  each  a  gymnasium.  The  bishopric  of 
Luxemburg,  containing  13  diaconates,  subdivided  into  253 
parishes,  holds  its  authority  directly  from  the  Holy  See. 
From  6,000,000  to  7,000,000  francs  is  the  annual 
amount  of  the  state  budget,  and  the  public  debt  was 
12,000,000  francs  in  1863.  Since  1854  there  has  been  a 
grand-ducal  bronze  coinage. 

The  following  table  shows  the  administrative  divisions  and  the 
population  (total,  205,158)  according  to  the  census  of  1875. 


Districts. 

Cantons. 

Communes. 

Population. 

Luxemburg  

Luxemburg  

13 

42  006 

Capellen  

11 

16,363 

Esch  

13 

24  158 

Mersch  

11 

14,264 

Grevenmacher  

Echternach  
Grevenmacher  

8 
9 
10 

13,136 
14,918 
13  796 

Diekirch     

Clerf  

10 

13,899 

Diekirch  

13 

18,254 

13 

15  042 

Vianden  

3 

3,350 

Wiltz  

13 

15  972 

Next  to  the  capital  come  Echternach  with  3920,  and  Diekirch 
with  3130  inhabitants, — both  worthy  of  note  for  their  blast  fur 
naces.  At  Echternach  an  annual  procession  is  held  in  honour  of  St 
"Willibrord,  dating  from  1374.  Grevenmacher  is  the  centre  of  a 
great  wine  district. 

The  Luxemburg  territory  as  well  as  the  country  of  Ardenne  was 
included  in  Belgica  Prima  at  the  first  division  of  Gaul  by 
Augustus  in  27  B.C.  ;  during  the  Frankish  period  it  formed  part  first 
of  Austrasia,  then  of  Lorraine,  and  then  of  Lower  Lorraine.  On 
the  dismemberment  of  ancient  Austrasia  the  countship  of  Ardenne 
fell  to  Ricuin  ;  and,  when  after  Ricuin's  death  his  children  divided 
his  possessions,  Ardenne  .proper  was  obtained  by  Count  Sigfried 
(Sigefroi).  The  county  of  Luxemburg,  as  Ardenne  came  to  be 
called  after  the  chief  town,  was  raised  to  be  a  duchy  in  1354,  and 
existed  as  an  independent  state  till  1451,  when  it  was  seized  by 
Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy.  The  dynasty  which  he  displaced  had 
been  ambitious  and  active,  and  had,  in  the  person  of  Henry  VII., 
attained  the  imperial  dignity,  and  in  that  of  John  ascended  the 
•throne  of  Bohemia.  As  a  Burgundian  possession  Luxemburg 


88 


LUXEMBURG 


came  to  the  house  of  Austria,  and,  after  forming  part  of  the  arch 
duchy  governed  by  Albert  and  Isabella,  1598-1632,  followed  the 
fate  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  till  it  was  ceded  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  It  was  deprived  of  Thionville, 
Montmedy,  Damvilliers,  Ivoix,  and  Marville  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees  (1659)  in  favour  of  France  ;  and  Louis  XIV.  occupied  the 
town  and  great  part  of  the  province  from  1684  till  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick  (1697).  Seized  by  the  French  in  1793,  it  went  in  the 
main  to  form  the  department  of  Forets.  On  the  16th  March  1815 
William  I.  declared  himself  king  of  the  Netherlands  and  duke  of 
Luxemburg,  and  his  claims  were  sanctioned  by  the  treaty  of 


-Dillemburg, 

of  his  place  in  the  Germanic  confederation.  The  fortress  was 
assigned  to  the  confederation  itself,  and  was  garrisoned  by  six' 
thousand  men,  of  whom  one-fourth  belonged  to  the  grand-duke  and 
three-fourths  to  the  confederation.  From  the  recognition  of 
Belgian  independence  in  1830  to  the  treaty  of  London  in  1839, 
matters  were  still  more  complicated  ;  there  were  two  governments  in 
Luxemburg — one  at  Luxemburg,  acting  for  the  grand-duke,  and  the 
other  at  Arlon,  acting  for  Belgium.  By  the  treaty  of  London  about 
1218  square  miles  of  the  duchy  with  149,571  inhabitants  were  trans 
ferred  to  Belgium,  the  German  confederation  and  King  AVilliam 
being  compensated  with  parts  of  Limburg.  On  the  dissolution  of 
the  confederation  the  duchy  became  free  from  its  connexion  with 
Germany,  but  the  fortress  remained  in  the  hands  of  Prussia.  A 
diplomatic  contest  for  possession  of  the  duchy  took  place  between 
France  and  Prussia  ;  and  the  matter  became  the  object  of  a  special 
conference  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  great  powers,  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  Italy,  in  1867.  The  result  was  that  the  neutrality  of 
Luxemburg  was  guaranteed  and  the  military  importance  of  the  town 
destroyed.  The  actual  demolition  of  the  fortifications  evacuated 
by  the  Prussians  in  September  1867  did  not  take  place  till  1872. 

See  Bertholet,  Hist,  du  duchi!  de  Luxembourg,  Luxemburg,  1741-43  ;  Vander- 
maelen,  Diet,  geogr.  du  Luxembourg,  lirussels,  1838  ;  Scliiitter,  Ki  it.  Erbrterunyen 
iiber  die  frith.  Gesch.  der  Grafschajt  Luxemburg,  Luxemburg,  1859 ;  Griivig, 
Luxemburg,  Land  und  VoJk,  Luxemburg,  1867. 

LUXEMBURG,  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy,  lies  34  miles 
north  of  Metz  and  25  south-west  of  Treves,  in  a  position 
as  remarkable  for  natural  beauty  as  for  military  strength. 
The  main  part  of  the  town  is  built  on  a  rocky  table-land 
terminating  precipitously  towards  the  north-east  and  south  ; 


Plan  of  Luxemburg. 

the  modern  portions,  known  as  Pfaffenthal,  Clausen,  arid 
Grund,  lie  200  feet  below,  in  the  valley  of  the  Alzette. 
Till  their  demolition  in  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1867  the 
fortifications,  on  which  the  engineers  of  three  centuries 
had  expended  their  skill,  were  the  great  feature  of  the 
place;  in  point  of  strength  they  ranked,  according  to 
Carnot,  second  only  to  those  of  Gibraltar,  and  like  them 
they  were  to  a  great  extent  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock. 
The  site  is  now  occupied  partly  by  a  fine  public  park, 
partly  by  new  districts  of  handsome  houses,  which  give 


the  city  more  of  the  outward  appearance  of  a  capital. 
Among  the  buildings  of  historical  interest  are  the  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  erected  by  the  Jesuits  in  1613 ;'  the  church 
of  St  Michel,  dating  from  1320;  the  Government-house, 
built  in  1443,  and  still  regularly  occupied  by  the  legislative 
assemblies;  the  town-house,  built  in  1830;  the  law  courts, 
dating  from  1565,  but  serving  till  1795  as  the  residence 
of  the  governor  of  Luxemburg ;  and  the  athenamm,  built 
in  1594,  and  now  (1882)  attended  by  500  to  600  pupils. 
The  population  of  the  city  and  suburbs,  which  was  15,930 
in  1875,  is  now  estimated  at  19,000. 

Luxemburg  (formerly  called  Lutzelburg)  appears  in  738  as  a- 
castle  presented  to  the  abbey  at  Treves  by  Charles  Martel.  Tlie- 
town  grew  up  in  the  course  of  the  10th  century,  and  soon  began  to- 
surround  itself  with  walls;  but  it  was  not  till  1503  that  a  regular 
system  of  fortifications  was  commenced,  and  the  principal  features 
of  the  modern  fortress  were  due  to  A^auban,  who  accompanied  Crequi 
in  his  capture  of  the  place  in  1664.  Extensive  additions  were 
made  to  the  works  in  1728-34. 

See  Coster,  Gcsch.  dcr  Fcstung  Luxemburg,  Luxemburg,  1869. 

LUXEMBURG,  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,, 
lying  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  country,  and 
bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the  provinces  of  Liege  and  Namur,. 
S.  by  France,  and  E.  by  Prussia  and  by  the  grand-duchy  of 
Luxemburg,  from  which  it  was  separated  in  1839.  It  is. 
the  largest  and  most  thinly  populated  of  the  Belgian  pro 
vinces, — 75  miles  in  length,  30  in  breadth  ;  the  population 
is  204,000.  The  ground  is  high,  averaging  1200  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  rising  in  parts  over  2000.  The  soil  is 
dry  and  slaty,  with  occasional  sand  and  limestone.  The 
aspect  of  the  country  is  a  succession  of  broad  tracts  of 
table  land  or  plateaus  covered  with  wood  or  heather,  and 
intersected  by  wide  and  deep  valleys;  these  contain  streams,, 
half-dry  during  the  summer,  but  quickly  changed  to  sweep 
ing  torrents  by  rain  or  melting  snow.  Peat  is  found  on 
the  hills,  and  occasional  morasses,  known  by  the  name  of 
"  hautes  fanges,"  are  to  be  met  with  on  the  tops  of  the 
highest  mountains.  The  whole  district  is  comprised  within* 
the  region  of  Ardennes.  The  agricultural  produce  is  poor  ; 
the  various  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  &c.,  are  remark 
ably  small,  though  they  all  possess  individual  qualities 
of  endurance  or  their  flesh  of  flavour;  the  hams  are  re 
nowned.  The  forests  abound  in  game  of  all  kinds ;  red 
deer  are  plentiful,  and  wild  boars  have  of  late  become 
so  abundant  as  to  be  a  serious  nuisance.  The  mineral 
productions  are  worthy  of  note.  Iron  is  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Ourthe,  and  also  farther  south  near  Arlon  ; 
lead  is  extracted  at  Longwilly,  manganese  at  Biham,  zinc- 
at  Longwilly  and  Bleid.  Building  stone  is  to  be  hadi 
throughout  the  province,  and  is  generally  employed,  brick 
houses  being  the  exception.  There  are  quarries  of  grey 
and  rose-coloured  marble  at  Wellin,  and  extensive  slate 
quarries  on  the  banks  of  the  Semois,  the  Sure,  and  the 
Salm.  The  trade  in  wood  and  bark  is  considerable,  and 
there  are  some  important  tanneries,  as  well  as  iron  works, 
paper-mills,  and  limekilns.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Semois,  the  Lesse,  and  the  Ourthe,  affluents  of  the  Meuse, 
and  the  Sure,  which  flows  into  the  Rhine ;  of  these  the 
Ourthe  alone  is  navigable  for  a  few  miles  down  from 
Barvaux.  There  are  no  canals  in  the  province,  so  that 
Luxemburg  is  entirely  dependent  on  railways  for  its  traffic. 
The  Brussels  and  Basel  line  runs  through  the  whole  pro 
vince,  with  a  station  at  Arlon,  the  capital ;  and  branch  lines, 
have  been  established  to  connect  the  principal  markets, 
Marche,  Durbuy,  Bastogne,  Virton,  &c.,  with  the  main 
artery.  The  language  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  is  French, 
with  an  admixture  of  Walloon  dialect  and  an  inferior  kind 
of  German  on  the  borders  of  the  grand-duchy.  The  king 
of  the  Belgians  and  his  brother  the  count  of  Flanders 
possess  summer  residences,  with  extensive  forest  lands,  in 
the  province  of  Luxemburg. 


L  U  X  —  L  Y  C 


89 


LUXOR,  more  properly  El-Aksur,  "  The  Castles"  (plur. 
pauc.  of  kasr),  a  village  on  the  Nile,  450  miles  above  Cairo, 
occupies  part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Thebes,  and  has  its 
name  from  the  ruins  described  in  vol.  vii.  p.  777.  The 
village  is  also  called  Abu'l  ]Iajjaj  from  the  patron  saint 
whose  tomb  is  mentioned  by  Ibn  Batuta,  i.  107,  ii.  253. 
See  also  Yakut,  i.  338.  Luxor  is  the  centre  for  visitors 
to  the  ruins  of  and  about  Thebes,  and  is  increasingly 
frequented  by  travellers  and  invalids  in  the  winter 
season,  being  the  only  place  above  Osyut  (Sayut)  provided, 
with  hotel  accommodation  suitable  for  Europeans.  The 
district  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  manufacture  of  forged 
antiques,  often  very  skilfully  made. 

LUZON,  or  LugoN.     See  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

LYCANTHROPY  is  a  term  used  comprehensively  to 
indicate  a  belief,  firmly  rooted  among  all  savages,  and 
lingering  in  the  form  of  traditional  superstition  among 
peoples  comparatively  civilized,  that  men  are  in  certain 
circumstances  transformed  temporarily  or  permanently 
into  wolves  and  other  inferior  animals.  In  the  European 
history  of  this  singular  belief,  wolf  transformations  appear 
as  by  far  the  most  prominent  and  most  frequently  recurring 
instances  of  alleged  metamorphosis,  and  consequently  in 
most  European  languages  the  terms  expressive  of  the 
general  doctrine  have  a  special  reference  to  the  wolf. 
Examples  of  this  are  found  in  the  Greek  AUKCIV^PCOTTO?, 
Russian  volkodldk,  English  were-wolf,  German  ivahrwolf, 
French  loup-garou.  And  yet  general  terms  (e.g.,  Latin, 
versipellis ;  Russian,  oboroten ;  Scandinavian,  hamrammr  : 
English,  turnskin,  turncoat)  are  sufficiently  numerous  to 
furnish  some  evidence  that  the  class  of  animals  into  which 
metamorphosis  was  possible  was  not  viewed  as  a  restricted 
one.  It  is  simply  because  the  old  English  general  terms 
have  been  long  diverted  from  their  original  signification 
that  the  word  "  lycanthropy  "  has  recently  been  adopted  in 
our  language  in  the  enlarged  sense  in  which  it  has  been 
defined  above. 

There  are  two  unfailing  characteristics  of  lycanthropous 
belief  : — (1)  there  can  nowhere  be  a  living  belief  in  con 
temporary  metamorphosis  into  any  animal  which  has  ceased 
to  exist  in  the  particular  locality ;  (2)  belief  in  metamor 
phosis  into  the  animal  most  prominent  in  any  locality  itself 
acquires  a  special  prominence.  These  characteristics 
apart,  the  phenomena  of  lycanthropy  exhibit  a  very  con 
siderable  diversity  in  their  nature. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe  the  were-wolf  is  preferred 
on  the  principles  just  noted.  There  are  old  traditions  of  his 
existence  in  England,  in  Wales,  and  in  Ireland.  In  southern 
France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Lithuania,  Bulgaria,  Servia, 
Bohemia,  Poland,  and  Russia  he  can  hardly  be  pronounced  extinct 
now.  In  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland  the  bear  com 
petes  with  the  wolf  for  pre-eminence.  In  Persia  the  bear  is 
supreme,  in  Japan  the  fox  ;  in  India  the  serpent  vies  with  the  tiger, 
in  Abyssinia  and  Bornou  the  hysna  with  the  lion,  in  eastern  Africa 
the  lion  with  the  alligator  ;  in  western  Africa  the  leopard  is  per 
haps  most  frequently  the  form  assumed  by  man,  among  the 
Abipones  the  tiger,  among  the  Arawaks  the  jaguar,  and  so  on. 
In  none  of  these  cases,  however,  is  the  power  of  transformation 
limited  exclusively  to  the  prominent  and  dominant  animal. 

The  most  familiar  phase  of  the  superstition  is  also  the 
latest  and  most  sophisticated.  It  was  no  belief  in  mere 
transformation  ;  the  transformation  here  was  accomplished 
by  Satanic  agency  voluntarily  submitted  to,  and  that  for 
the  most  loathsome  ends,  in  particular  for  the  gratification 
of  a  craving  for  human  flesh.  "  The  were-wolves,"  writes 
Richard  Verstegan  (Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence, 
1628),  "are  certayne  sorcerers,  who  having  annoynted 
their  bodies  with  an  oyntment  which  they  make  by  the 
instinct  of  the  devill,  and  putting  on  a  certayne  inchaunted 
girdle,  doe  not  onely  unto  the  view  of  others  seeme  as 
wolves,  but  to  their  owne  thinking  have  both  the  shape 
and  nature  of  wolves,  so  long  as  they  weare  the  said  girdle. 


And  they  do  dispose  themselves  as  very  wolves,  in  wourry- 
ing  and  killing,  and  most  of  humane  creatures."  Such 
were  the  views  about  lycanthropy  current  throughout  the 
continent  of  Europe  when  Verstegan  wrote.  France  in 
particular  seems  to  have  been  infested  with  were-wolves 
during  the  16th  century,  and  the  consequent  trials  were 
very  numerous.  In  some  of  the  cases, — e.g.,  those  of 
the  Gandillon  family  in  the  Jura,  the  tailor  of  Chalonp, 
and  Roulet  in  Angers,  all  occurring  in  the  year  1598, 
— there  was  clear  evidence  against  the  accused  of  murder 
and  cannibalism,  but  none  of  association  with  wolves ;  in 
other  cases,  as  that  of  Gilles  Gamier  in  Dole  in  1573,  there 
was  clear  evidence  against  some  wolf,  but  none  against  the 
accused ;  in  all  the  cases,  with  hardly  an  exception,  there 
was  that  extraordinary  readiness  in  the  accused  to  confess 
and  even  to  give  circumstantial  details  of  the  metamor 
phosis,  which  is  one  of  the  most  inexplicable  concomitants 
of  mediaeval  witchcraft.  Yet,  while  this  lycanthropy  fever, 
both  of  suspectors  and  of  suspected,  was  at  its  height,  it 
was  decided  in  the  case  of  Jean  Grenier  at  Bordeaux,  in 
1603,  that  lycanthropy  was  nothing  more  than  an  insane 
delusion.  From  this  time  the  loup-garou  gradually  ceased 
to  be  regarded  as  a  dangerous  heretic,  and  fell  back -into 
his  pre-Christianic  position  of  being  simply  a  "  man-wolf- 
fiend,"  as  which  ue  still  survives  among  the  French 
peasantry.  In  Prussia,  Livonia,  and  Lithuania,  according 
to  the  bishops  Olaus  Magnus  and  Majolus,  the  were-wolves 
were  in  the  16th  century  far  more  destructive  than  "true 
and  natural  wolves,"  and  their  heterodoxy  appears  from 
the  assertion  that  they  formed  "an  accursed  college"  of 
those  "  desirous  of  innovations  contrary  to  the  divine  law." 
In  England,  however,  where  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  the  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  still  zealously 
prosecuted  by  James  L,  the  wolf  had  been  so  long 
extinct  that  that  pious  monarch  was  himself  able  (Demo- 
nologie,  lib.  iii.)  to  regard  "warwoolfes"  as  victims  of 
delusion  induced  by  "a  naturall  superabundance  of 
melancholic."  Only  small  creatures,  such  as  the  cat,  the 
hare,  and  the  weasel,  remained  for  the  malignant  sorcerer 
to  transform  himself  into ;  but  he  was  firmly  believed  to 
avail  himself  of  these  agencies.  Belief  in  witch-animals 
still  survives  among  the  uneducated  classes  in  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom. 

The  were-wolves  of  the  Christian  dispensation  were  not, 
however,  all  heretics,  all  viciously  disposed  towards 
mankind.  "According  to  Baronius,  in  the  year  617,  a 
number  of  wolves  presented  themselves  at  a  monastery, 
and  tore  in  pieces  several  friars  who  entertained  heretical 
opinions.  The  wolves  sent  by  God  tore  the  sacrilegious 
thieves  of  the  army  of  Francesco  Maria,  duke  of  Urbino, 
who  had  come  to  sack  the  treasure  of  the  holy  house  of 
Loreto.  A  wolf  guarded  and  defended  from  the  wild 
beasts  the  head  of  St  Edmund  the  martyr,  king  of  England. 
St  Oddo,  abbot  of  Cluny,  assailed  in  a  pilgrimage  by  foxes, 
was  delivered  and  escorted  by  a  wolf."  *  Many  of  the 
were-wolves  were  most  innocent  and  God-fearing  persons, 
who  suffered  through  the  witchcraft  of  others,  or  simply 
from  an  unhappy  fate,  and  who  as  wolves  behaved  in  a 
truly  touching  fashion,  fawning  upon  and  protecting  their 
benefactors.  Of  this  sort  were  the  "  Bisclaveret "  in  Marie 
de  France's  poem  (c.  1 200),  the  hero  of  "  William  and  the 
Were-wolf "  (translated  from  French  into  English  about 
1350),  and  the  numerous  princes  and  princesses,  knights 
and  ladies,  who  appear  temporarily  in  beast  form  in 
the  Mdhrchen  of  the  Aryan  nations  generally.  Nay  the 
power  of  transforming  others  into  wild  beasts  was  attributed 
not  only  to  malignant  sorcerers,  but  also  to  Christian  saints. 
"  Omnes  angeli,  boni  et  mali,  ex  virtute  naturali  habent 

1   A.  do  Gubernatis,  Zoological  Mythology,  1872,  vol.  ii.  p.  145. 

XV.     —     12 


90 


LYCANTHKOPY 


potestatem  transmutandi  corpora  nostra,"  was  the  dictum 
of  St  Thomas  Aquinas.  A  Russian  story  tells  how  the 
apostles  Peter  and  Paul  turned  an  impious  husband  and 
wife  into  bears  ;  St  Patrick  transformed  Vereticus,  king  of 
Wales,  into  a  wolf ;  and  St  Natalis  cursed  an  illustrious 
Irish  family,  with  the  result  that  each  member  of  it  was 
doomed  to  be  a  wolf  for  seven  years.  In  other  tales  the 
divine  agency  is  still  more  direct,  while  in  Russia,  again, 
men  are  supposed  to  become  were-wolves  through  incurring 
the  wrath  of  the  devil. 

There  is  thus  an  orthodox  as  well  as  a  heterodox  were 
wolf  ;  and,  if  a  survey  be  taken  of  the  lycanthropous  beliefs 
of  non-Christian  peoples,  this  distinction  among  shape- 
changers  will  be  equally  obvious.  The  gods  of  ancient 
mythology,  Hindu,  Persian,  Greek,  and  Teutonic,  had  an 
apparently  unlimited  power  of  assuming  animal  forms. 
These  gods,  moreover,  constantly  employed  themselves  in 
changing  men  and  women  into  beasts,  sometimes  in 
punishment  of  crime,  sometimes  out  of  compassion,  and 
sometimes  from  pure  voluptuousness.  Thus  Kabandha 
was  changed  by  Indra  into  a  monster,  Trisanku  by  the- 
sons  of  Vasishtha  into  a  bear,  Lycaon  by  Zeus  into  a  wolf, 
Callisto  into  a  bear,  lo  into  a  heifer ;  the  enemies  of  Odin 
became  boars,  and  so  on.  It  is  admittedly  difficult  to 
trace  the  original  meaning  of  these  legends,  but  the  alleged 
metamorphosis  of  a  god  is  at  times  clearly  associated  with 
his  worship  under  the  form  of  the  animal  he  turned  into 
in  the  region  where  the  metamorphosis  was  said  to  have 
occurred.  Indra  in  the  form  of  a  bull  encountered  the 
monster  Vritra,  and  released  the  cows  he  had  stolen ; 
Indra  was  invoked  as  a  bull,  and  to  him  the  bull  and  the 
cow  were  sacred  among  the  Hindus.  Derketo  became  a 
fish  near  Ascalon ;  a  fish-goddess  identified  with  her  was 
worshipped  in  Syria,  and  the  fish  sacred  to  her  were  not 
eaten.  Poseidon,  the  inventor  of  horses,  was,  as  a  horse, 
the  father  of  the  steeds  Arion  and  Pegasus,  and  the  horse 
was  sacred  to  him.  Jupiter  Ammon  appeared  as  a  ram  in 
the  deserts  of  Libya ;  in  Libya  he  had  an  oracle  where 
the  ram  was  sacred  to  him,  and  his  image  wore  ram's 
horns.  So  too  metamorphosis  by  gods  is  in  some  cases 
connected  with  local  traditions.  The  Arcadians,  or  bear- 
tribe,  sprang  from  the  were-bear  Callisto ;  the  Lycians,  or 
wolf-tribe,  were  wolves  when  they  conducted  to  the  river 
Xanthus  the  were-wolf  Leto,  mother  ef  the  Lycian  Apollo. 
Turning  from  the  gods  to  the  heroes  of  classical  romance, 
we  find  traditions  more,  interesting  and  more  instructive, 
because  they  must  have  some  real  historical  foundation. 
Yet  they  also  abound  in  episodes  of  beast  mothers  and 
beast  fathers,  and  also  of  lycanthropy  proper.  Cyrus 
was  suckled  by  a  bitch,  the  Servian  hero  Milosh  Kobilitch 
by  a  mare,  the  Norse  Sigurd  by  a  hind,  the  German 
Dieterich  and  the  Latin  Romulus  by  wolves;  the  pro 
genitor  of  the  Merovingian  kings  was  a  bull,  of  the  Danish 
royal  race  a  bear ;  Sigmund  and  Sinfiotli  in  the  Volsunga 
Saga  become  wolves,  Nagli  in  the  Eyrbyggia  Saga  a  boar. 
The  Berserkir  of  Iceland  asserted  their  ability  to  become 
bears  and  wolves,  and  dressed  themselves  in  the  skins  of 
these  animals ;  their  existence,  their  garb,  and  their 
pretensions  are  historical  facts.  In  the  Sanskrit  epic,  the 
Mahabharata,  the  hero  Puloman  becomes  a  wild  boar  to 
carry  off  the  wife  of  Bhrigu  ;  the  house  of  Brabant  traced 
its  origin  to  a  transformed  swan.  Beast-form  is,  however, 
in  mythology  proper  far  oftener  assumed  for  malignant 
than  for  benignant  ends ;  indeed  the  heroes  and  anthropo 
morphic  gods  of  the  great  religious  systems  are  principally 
distinguished  for  their  victories  over  the  semi-hiynan  semi- 
bestial  demons.  The  bull  Indra  fights  the  demon  serpent 
Vritra,  and  so  forth ;  the  Theban  Cadmus,  the  Russian 
Ivan,  the  Norse  Sigurd,  all  encounter  dragons  or  serpents, 
which  possess  human  characteristics.  In  most  of  such 


cases   indeed   the   human   as   well  as   the  beast  form  is 
distinctly  attributed  to  the  demon. 

It  is  because  they  may  after  all  be  properly  associated 
with  the  undoubted  phenomena  of  modern  savage  life  that 
these  facts  of  ancient  mythology  are  here  alluded  to. 
Among  savages  there  is  the  most  confident  belief  in 
metamorphosis, — metamorphosis  effected  for  the  most 
salutary  and  for  the  most  baneful  ends.  In  the  neighbour 
hood  of  Tette  on  the  Zambesi  every  chief  is  credited  with 
the  power  of  assuming  lion  shape ;  every  lion  is  respected 
as  being  a  transformed  chief  or  the  spirit  of  a  chief 
departed.  Moreover,  there  is  a  special  class  of  "  doctors  " 
or  medicine-men,  known  as  "  pondoros,"  scattered  through 
the  villages,  who  pretend  to  powers  of  metamorphosis,  and 
thus  are  regarded  with  both  respect  and  dread  ;  their  kindly 
disposition  they  display  by  hunting  for  the  community  in 
lion  shape,  and  then  bringing  home  the  game.  Among 
the  Arawaks  of  Guiana,  the  Kandhs  of  Orissa,  and  the 
Jakuns  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  beast  form  is  said  to  be 
assumed  by  those  desiring  to  avenge  themselves  justly  on 
enemies.  Beast-parents  and  cases  of  women  alleged  to 
have  borne  beast  children  are  also  familiar  to  savages. 
But  this  is  only  one  side  of  the  picture.  The  "kanaima- 
tiger"  (i.e.,  man-jaguar)  of  Arawak  may  be  possessed  by 
the  spirit  of  a  man  devoted  to  bloodshed  and  cannibalism  ; 
"  there  is,"  writes  the  Rev.  Mr  Brett,  "  no  superstition 
more  prevalent  among  the  Indians  than  this,  and  none 
which  causes  more  terror."  In  Ashango-land,  where  there 
are  distinct  traces  of  animal  worship,  a  were-leopard  was 
at  the  time  of  Du  Chaillu's  visit  charged  with  murder 
and  metamorphosis,  and,  confessing  both,  was  slowly  burnt 
to  death,  quite  in  the  style  of  mediaeval  Europe.  Similar 
occurrences  have  been  known  among  the  Kols  (of  Chutia- 
Nagpur)  and  among  the  Arabs. 

The  expedients  supposed  to  be  adopted  for  effecting  change  of 
shape  may  here  be  noticed.  One  of  the  simplest  apparently  was  the 
removal  of  clothing,  and  in  particular  of  a  girdle  of  human  skin,  or 
the  putting  on  of  such  a  girdle, — more  commonly  the  putting  on  of 
a  girdle  of  the  skin  of  the  animal  whose  form  was  to  be  assumed. 
This  last  device  is  doubtless  a  substitute  for  the  assumption  of  an 
entire  animal  skin,  which  also  is  frequently  found.  In  other  cases 
the  body  is  rubbed  with  a  magic  salve.  To  drink  water  out  of  the 
footprint  of  the  animal  in  question,  to  partake  of  its  brains,  to 
drink  of  certain  enchanted  streams,  were  also  considered  effectual 
modes  of  accomplishing  metamorphosis.  Olaus  Magnus  says  that 
the  Livonian  were-wolves  were  initiated  by  draining  a  cup  of  beer 
specially  prepared,  and  repeating  a  set  formula.  Mr  Ralston  in  his 
Songs  of  the  Russian  People  gives  the  form  of  incantation  still 
familiar  in  .Russia.  Various  expedients  also  existed  for  removing 
the  beast-shape.  The  simplest  was  the  act  of  the  enchanter  (operat 
ing  either  on  himself  or  on  a  victim)  ;  another  was  the  removal 
of  the  animal  girdle.  To  kneel  in  one  spot  for  a  hundred  years,  to 
be  reproached  with  being  a  were-wolf,  to  be  saluted  with  the  sign 
of  the  cross,  or  addressed  thrice  by  baptismal  name,  to  be  struck 
three  blows  on  the  forehead  with  a  knife,  or  to  have  at  least  three 
drops  of  blood  drawn  were  also  effectual  cures.  The-last-mentioned 
was  quite  essential  to  the  subsistence  of  the  superstition.  Its 
absurdity  would  have  much  sooner  appeared,  but  for  the  theory 
that,  directly  the  were-wolf  was  wounded,  he  resumed  his  human 
shape  ;  in  every  case  where  one  accused  of  being  a  were-wolf  was 
taken,  lie  was  certain  to  be  wounded,  and  thus  the  difficulty  of  his 
not  being  found  in  beast  form  was  satisfactorily  disposed  of. 

The  foregoing  types  of  lycanthropy,  in  which  the 
divine  or  diabolical  agency  is  always  emphasized,  are 
presumably  less  primitive  than  those  cases  in  which  super 
human  agency  is  not  so  prominent.  The  following  cases, 
therefore,  seem  to  be  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
origin  of  the  belief.  (1)  The  Kandhs  believe  "natural 
tigers  to  kill  game  only  to  benefit  men,  who  generally  find 
it  but  partially  devoured  and  share  it;  while  the  tigers 
which  kill  men  are  either  Tari  (a  goddess),  who  has 
assumed  the  form  of  a  tiger  for  purposes  of  wrath,  or  men 
who,  by  the  aid  of  a  god,  have  assumed  the  form  of  tigers, 
and  are  called  '  mleepa  tigers.' "  A  distinction  was 
previously  drawn  between  friendly  and  hostile  lycanthro- 


LYCANTHROPY 


91 


pists;  here  a  distinction  is  drawn  between  friendly  and 
hostile  tigers,  and  lycanthropy  is  introduced  to  explain 
the  cases  of  hostility.  Again  (2)  in  the  native  literature 
of  modern  savages  there  constantly  occur  stories  of  the 
"Beauty  and  the  Beast"  type,  so  distinctly  resembling 
those  of  the  Aryan  Mcihrchen  as  to  indicate  identity  of 
origin ;  but,  while  in  the  Aryan  story  the  beast-form  of 
the  hero  or  heroine  is  generally  at  last  removed,  in  the 
savage  story  the  incongruity  of  the  beast-form  is  scarcely 
realized,  and  the  Indian  lover  lives  happily  with  his  beaver 
bride,  the  Zulu  maiden  with  her  frog  husband.  And  (3) 
in  many  instances  the  power  or  necessity  of  transformation 
is  ascribed,  not  to  individuals,  but  to  clans  or  nations. 
Thus  the  aboriginal  Naga  tribes  of  India  seemed  to  the 
Aryans  to  take  the  form  of  serpents ;  the  Neuri  seemed  to 
the  Scythians,  and  the  Hirpini  to  the  Romans,  to  become 
wolves,  as  also  did  the  native  Irish  of  Ossory  to  the  early 
Christian  priests ;  the  Abyssinians  credit  the  Buda  caste 
(blacksmiths  and  potters  of  alien  stock)  with  ability  to 
become  hytenas  at  pleasure ;  the  Berserkr-rage  of  Iceland  is 
perpetuated  in  the  modern  Scandinavian  belief  that  Lapps 
and  Finns  can  take  the  form  of  bears.  In  mediaeval  times 
Blois  had  a  special  celebrity  for  were-wolves,  and  persons 
named  Gamier  or  Grenier  were  generally  assumed  to  be 
lycanthropists. 

When,  we  find  that  these  three  distinct  classes  of 
primitive  facts  regarding  lycanthropy  are  all  referable  to 
a  common  origin,  there  seems  good  reason  for  regarding 
that  as  being  in  truth  the  origin  of  lycanthropous  belief. 
And  thus  we  are  led  to  refer  lycanthropy  to  the  more 
general  facts  of  primitive  TOTBMISM  (q.v.),  for  the  facts 
recited  are  as  undoubtedly  characteristic  of  the  latter  as 
of  the  former.  Where  the  totem  is  an  animal,  it  is 
regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the  tribe  ;  all  animals  of  its 
species  are  revered,  and  are  never  willingly  killed  ;  however 
dangerous  to  life,  they  are  feigned  by  the  tribe  to  be 
friendly"  to  them,  arid  hostile  only  to  their  enemies.  Apply 
ing  these  facts  to  the  foregoing  lycanthropous  phenomena 
in  order,  we  observe  (1)  that  the  tiger  is  a  totem  god 
among  the  Kandhs ;  consequently  he  reserves  his  wrath 
for  their  enemies.1  Individual  enemies  would,  however, 
be  created  whenever  an  individual  Kandh  had  the  blood- 
feud  against  another,  for  then  his  totem  was  bound  to  aid 
him.  Such  we  saw  was  in  fact  the  Kandh  explanation 
of  the  wrath  of  the-  totem.  The  development  of  sorcery 
would  naturally  lead  to  the  utilization  of  the  totem  as 
assistant  in  it  also.  The  Arawak  "kanaima"  is  both 
lawful  avenger  and  cruel  sorcerer ;  and  from  a  similar 
reason  probably  did  the  wolf  or  were-wolf  in  Europe 
become  a  synonym  for  outlaw.  The  outlaw  was  at  first 
simply  the  peaceless  man — the  man  who  preferred  vendetta 
to  money  composition  for  injuries, — as  he  was  originally 
bound  to  do,  subsequently  entitled  to  do,  and  finally 
prohibited  from,  doing.  (2)  The  beast-hero  of  savage 
story  ceases  to  be  strange  when  we  learn  that  "  a  beaver," 
"  a  dog,"  "  a  grizzly  bear,  "  mean  respectively  a  person  of 
a  tribe  having  the  animal  in  question  for  totem.  And  so 
too  (3)  with  the  third  class  of  phenomena  which  contem 
plates  tribes  turned  into  beasts.  The  Nagas  had  the 
serpent  for  totem  ;  apparently  the  Hirpini,  and  the  native 
Irish  in  many  districts,  had  the  wolf ;  they  certainly 
venerated  and  worshipped  that  animal.  The  Lapps  are 
known  to  worship  the  bear.  Blois  means  the  "city  of 
wolves."  Doubtless  all  cases  of  this  sort  admit  of  similar 
explanation, 

The  doctrine  of  lycanthropy  or  metamorphosis  of  living  men 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or  trans 
migration  of  souls.  It  no  doubt  was  usual  to  conclude  that  the 

1  The  Watusi  of  East  Africa  distinctly  describe  all  wild  beasts  save 
their  own  totem-animals  as  eneray-scouts. 


souls  of  cataleptic  and  epileptic  patients  sojourned  temporarily  in 
animals,  while  the  patients  were  unconscious  ;  but  this  phase  of 
lycanthropy  is  too  rare  and  too  abnormal  to  be  associated  with  the 
origin  of  the  superstition.  Transmigration  after  death,  involving 
the  belief  in  a  future  state,  raises  questions  as  puzzling  as  does 
lycanthropy  itself,  and  questions  qui'te  of  a  different  kind,  because 
iu  normal  lycanthropy  the  change  effected  is  an  actual  corporeal 
one.  Mr  Tylor  therefore  throws  little  light  on  the  origin  of  lycan 
thropy  when  he  connects  it  with  metempsychosis.  In  the  form 
familiar  to  us  it  doubtless  involves  the  doctrine  of  "  animism  " — the 
doctrine  that  animals,  plants,  and  things  are  prompted  to  action  by- 
spirits  similar  to  those  possessed  by  men  ;  but,  whether  lycanthropy 
is  simply  a  special  application  of  a  general  doctrine  of  animism,  and 
is  not  rather  one  of  the  earliest  advances  from  a  blind  totemism  to  a 
general  animistic  theory,  may  fairly  be  questioned.  This  at  least 
seems  plain  :  animism,  apart  from  totemism,  is  not  itself  sufficient 
to  explain  lycanthropy,  for  even  animistic  beliefs  are  not  developed 
abnormally,  but  along  lines  predetermined  by  circumstances.  Mr 
Tylor's  views  are,  however,  so  cautiously  and  so  suggestively 
expressed  as  to  deserve  close  study.  Hardly  so  satisfactory  arc 
the  other  theories  on  the  subject,  which,  passing  over  varia 
tions  in  detail,  fall  into  two  classes — the  mythological  and  the 
rationalistic.  On  the  former  view,  now  upheld  by  a  large  school  of 
inquirers,  the  ancient  Aryan  myths,  and  their  modern  represen 
tatives  the  Malirchen,  are  regarded  as  imaginative  descriptions 
(principally  due  to  the  use  of  metaphorical  language)  of  the  great 
elemental  powers  and  changes  of  nature.  On  such  a  view  the 
occurrence  of  shape-changing  gods  and  heroes  is  simple  and  natural, 
so  long  as  the  persons  are  purely  mythical,  because  thus  far  nothing 
need  be  deemed  strange  or  unnatural.  But  the  theory  breaks  down 
when  it  ventures  on  elucidation  of  historical  facts.  It  seems  vain  to 
contend, — although  it  is  contended, — that  "  the  terrible  delusion  of 
lycanthropy  arose  from  tlie  mere  use  of  an  equivocal  word  "  (\VKOS, 
"wolf,"  for  \evK6s,  "shining").  Attempt  to  substantiate  in  detail 
this  explanation  of  history  is  absolutely  fatal.  "Whence,"  it  is 
asked,  "  came  the  notions  that  men  were  changed  into  wolves,  bears, 
and  birds,  and  not  into  lions,  fishes,  or  reptiles?  "and  the  triumph  ant 
reply  is  that  the  first-named  animals  were  selected  for  glossiness 
or  luminosity  of  coat.2  Consequently,  if  transformation  into  the 
other  animals  was  also  believed  in,  the  theory  stands  self-refuted. 
Now  Hippomenes  and  Atalanta  were  for  impiety  turned  into  lion 
and  lioness,  Cadmus  and  Harmonia  into  serpents  ;  and  these  cases 
of  transformation  have  almost  as  intimate  an  association  with  the 
historical  belief  in  men-lions  and  men-serpents  as  the  case  of 
Lycaon  (my thologically  =  the  shiner,  the  sun)  has  with  lycanthropy. 
Cognate  to  the  mythological  doctrine  is  the  doctrine  of  the  per 
sonification  as  demons  of  all  obstacles  which  men  have  encountered 
in  the  long  struggle  for  existence, — among  these  the  wilder  and  more 
savage  animals.  This  is  just  a  one-sided  animism:  it  is  inadequate 
to  explain  how  the  savage  beasts  so  often  became  mild  and  gentle 
men.  The  rationalistic  theories  are  open  to  the  same  objections  :  to 
account  for  divine  and  benignant  lycanthropists  they  have  to  be 
supplemented  by  the  mythological  theories  ;  they  themselves  deal 
exclusively  with  the  more  repulsive  characteristics.  The  most 
recent  exponent  of  the  rationalistic  theory  is  Mr  Baring  Gould,  who 
rests  his  case  on  a  proof  of  the  facts  that  there  is  "  an  innate  craving 
for  blood  implanted  in  certain  natures,  restrained  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  but  breaking  forth  occasionally,  accompanied  with, 
hallucination,  leading  in  most  cases  to  cannibalism."  That  can 
nibalism  and  craving  for  blood  had  a  natural  (though  not  a  neces 
sary)  connexion  with  lycanthropy,  if  it  originated  among  savages, 
need  not  be  disputed  ;  but  Mr  Baring  Gould's  instances,  drawn 
from  mediaeval  European  history,  are  undoubtedly  exceptional. 
Hallucination,  however,  has  been  accepted  as  sufficient  explana 
tion  of  lycanthropy  by  many  eminent  authorities,  besides  Mi- 
Gould,  and  raises  a  graver  question.  Belief  in  transformation  into 
beasts  has  been  acknowledged  as  a  distinct  type  of  monomania 
by  medical  men  since  the  days  of  Paulus  ^Egineta  (7th  century) 
at  least ;  but  even  in  madness  there  is  method,  and  insane 
delusions  must  reflect  the  usages  and  beliefs  of  contemporaneous 
society.  Here  the  weakness  of  the  case  appears.  Mr  Gould,  for 
instance,  merely  states  that  the  victims  were  rustics,  and  wolves 
the  chief  terror  of  their  homesteads,  an  explanation  valid  only  on 
the  assumption  that  the  idea  of  metamorphosis  was  already  familiar, 
— an  assumption,  that  is,  of  the  whole  matter  at  issue.  Besides,  it 
is  the  popular,  not  the  individual,  belief  in  transformation  that  is 
strange  ;  to  trace  its  origin  to  insane  delusion  makes  it  stranger 
still,  for  sane  men  are  particularly  sceptical  regarding  the  reality  of 
the  impressions  of  the  insane.  Sane  men,  moreover,  believed  in 
transformation,  not  only  into  malignant  wolves,  but  also  into  harm 
less  cats  and  hares,  which  in  consequence  became  malignant  and 
dangerous.  How  can  the  rationalistic  theory  account  for  a  pheno 
menon  like  this  ?  On  the  whole,  there  seems  little  doubt  that, 
whether  the  origin  of  lycanthropy  rests  in  totemism  or  not,  Mr 

2  Sir  G.  W.  Cox,  The  Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations,  London, 
1870,  vol.  i.  pp.  63  note,  231,  363,  459  ;  vol.  ii.  p.  78  note. 


L  Y  C  — L  Y  C 


Tylor  is  right  in  referring  lycanthropous"  insane  delusions  to  an 
antecedent  belief  in  lycauthropy,  instead  of  ascribing  lycanthropy 
to  insane  delusions. 

Literature.— In  the  numerous  mediaeval  works  directed  t>  the  study  of 
sorcery  and  witchcraft,  the  contemporaneous  phases  of  lycanthropy  occupy  a  pro 
minent  pi  ice.  In  addition  to  the  authors  who  have  been  already  mentioned,  the 
following  may  be  named  as  giving  special  attention  to  this  subject : — Wier,  De 
Prx.-tigiis  Dxmonum,  Amsterdam,  1563;  Bodin,  Demonomanie  des  Sorciers, 
Paris,  1580;  lioguet,  Discourt  des  Borders,  Lyons,  2d  ed.  I(i08  ;  Lancre,  Tableau 
de  I' Inconstance  de  Mauvais  Anges,  Paris,  1613  ;  Psellus,  De  Operations  Dxmonum, 
Paris,  1615  ;  see  also  Glanvil,  Sadducismus  Triumphal  us,  for  the  English  equi 
valents  of  lycanthropy.  Treatises  solely  confined  to  lycanthropy  are  rare  both 
in  mediaeval  and  in  modern  times  ;  but  a  few  are  well  known,  as,  for  instance, 
those  of  Bourquelot  and  Nynau'.d,  De  la  Lycanthropie,  Paris,  1615  ;  Hartz,  De 
Werwolf,  Stuttgart,  1862;  Baring  Gould,  The  Book  of  Were-icolves,  London,  1865. 
Incidentally,  however,  lycanthropy  has  engaged  the  attention  of  a  large  number 
of  writers,  most  of  whom  theorize  regarding  its  origin.  An  exhaustive  enumera 
tion  of  these  cannot  be  here  attempted  ;  but  the  following  works  will  be  found 
particularly  instructive: — Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie,  vols.  ii.  and  iii.,  4th  ed., 


111.,  iuusuow,  10017 ;  lyioi,  r riiuit  tie  c  uu  ut  K,  \  uj.  i.,  AJUUUUH,  LOI  i,  uiiu  siHiiri  vputvyy, 

chap.  xiv.  and  xv.,  London,  1S81  ;  Gubernatis,  Zoological  Mythology  (especially 
chaps,  xi.  and  xii.),  London,  1872;  Ralston,  Songs  of  thz  Russian  People,  London, 
1872 ;  Laisnel  de  la  Salle.  Croyances  et  Legendes  du  Centre  de  la  trance,  Paris, 
1875  ;  Conway,  Demoiiology  and  Devil  Lore,  vol.  i.,  London,  1879.  For  the  medical 
aspects  of  lycanthropy,  consult  the  Asylum  Journal  of  Mental  Science,  vol  iii. 
p.  100  (Dr  D.  H.  Tuke),  and  authorities  there  cited.  (J.  F.  M'L.) 

LYCAON,  son  of  Pelasgus  or  of  Aizeus,  was  the 
mythical  first  king  of  Arcadia,  who  founded  the  first  city 
Lycosoura  and  the  worship  of  Zeus  on  Mount  Lycaeus. 
He,  or  his  fifty  impious  sons,  entertained  Zeus  and  set 
before  him  a  dish  of  human  flesh ;  the  god  pushed  away 
the  dish  in  disgust  and  overturned  the  table  at  a  place 
called  Trapezus.  In  punishment  either  lightning  slew  the 
king  and  his  sons,  or  they  were  turned  into  wolves. 
Pausanias  (viii.  2)  says  that  Lycaon  sacrificed  a  child  to 
Zeus,  and  was  during  the  sacrifice  turned  into  a  wolf. 
Henceforth  the  story  ran — a  man  was  turned  into  a  wolf  at 
each  annual  sacrifice  to  Zeus  Lycaeus,  recovering  his  human 
form  after  ten  years  if  he  had  not  during  that  time  eaten 
human  flesh.  Lyciou  is  evidently  the  Lycaean  form  of 
a  very  common  conception,  viz.,  the  divine  first  man, 
whose  life  is  the  heavenly  fire,  who  comes  to  earth 
and  returns  to  heaven  as  the  lightning.  The  oldest  city, 
the  oldest  cultus,  and  the  first  civilization  of  Arcadia  are 
attributed  to  him.  The  mysterious  cultus  and  the  human 
sacrifices,  which  continued  apparently  through  the  historical 
period  (Paus.,  viii.  38),  of  Zeus  Lycaeus  have  moulded  the 
legends  of  the  Lycaean  first  man  and  first  king.  Moreover 
his  name,  which  is  connected  with  that  of  the  mountain, 
suggested  a  derivation  from  XVKOS,  wolf ;  and  legends 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Teutonic  were-wolf  (see  LYCAN- 
THKOPY)  naturally  grew  round  him. 

Plate  II.  LYCAONIA,  in  ancient  geography,  was  the  name  given 
to  a  province  in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor,  north  of  Mount 
Taurus.  It  was  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Cappadocia,  on  the 
N.  by  Galatia,  on  the  W.  by  Phrygia  and  Pisidia,  while 
to  the  S.  it  extended  to  the  chain  of  Mount  Taurus,  from 
which  it  was,  however,  in  part  separated  by  Isauria,  though 
some  writers  included  that  district  in  Lycaonia.  Its 
boundaries  appear  indeed  to  have  varied  at  different  times, 
as  was  the  case  with  all  the  nations  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
name  is  not  found  in  Herodotus,  but  Lycaonia  is  men 
tioned  by  Xenophon  as  traversed  by  Cyrus  the  younger 
on  his  march  through  Asia.  That  author,  however,  de 
scribes  Iconium,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Lycaonia,  as 
included  in  Phrygia.  But  in  Strabo's  time  the  limits  of 
the  province  were  more  clearly  recognized,  though  Isauria 
was  by  some  authors  considered  as  a  part  of  Lycaonia,  by 
others  as  a  distinct  province.  Ptolemy,  on  the  other  hand, 
includes  Lycaonia  as  a  part  of  Cappadocia,  with  which  it 
may  have  been  associated  by  the  Romans  for  administrative 
purposes ;  but  the  two  countries  are  clearly  distinguished 
both  by  Strabo  and  Xenophon. 

'Lycaonia  is  well  described  by  Strabo  as  a  cold  region  of 
elevated  plains,  affording  pasture  to  wild  asses  and  to  sheep. 
It  in  fact  forms  a  part  of  the  great  table-land  which  con 
stitutes  the  whole  intsrior  of  Asia  Minor,  and  has  through 


out  its  whole  extent  an  elevation  of  more  than  3000  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  suffers,  moreover,  severely  from  the 
want  of  water,  aggravated  by  the  abundance  of  salt  in  the 
soil,  so  that  the  whole  northern  portion  of  the  province, 
extending  from  near  Iconium  to  the  salt  lake  of  Tatta,  and 
the  frontiers  of  Galatia,  was  almost  wholly  barren.  Other 
portions  of  the  country,  however,  notwithstanding  the 
deficiency  of  water,  were  well  adapted  for  feeding  sheep, 
so  that  Amyntas,  king  of  Galatia,  to  whom  the  district 
was  for  a  time  subject,  maintained  there  not  less  than  three 
hundred  flocks,  which  brought  him  in  a  large  revenue. 

Though  the  greater  part  of  Lycaonia  is  a  broad  open 
plain,  extending  as  far  as  the  underfalls  of  the  Taurus,  its 
monotonous  character  is  interrupted  by  some  minor  ranges, 
or  rather  groups  of  mountains,  of  volcanic  character,  of 
which  the  Kara  Dagh  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  district, 
a  few  miles  north  of  Karaman,  rises  to  a  height  of  above 
8000  feet,  while  the  Karadja  Dagh,  to  the  north-east  of 
the  preceding,  though  of  very  inferior  elevation,  presents  a 
striking  range  of  volcanic  cones.  The  mountains  in  the 
north-west  of  the  province,  near  Iconium  and  Laodicea,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  the  termination  of  the  great  range  of 
the  Sultan  Dagh,  which  traverses  a  large  part  of  Phrygia. 

The  Lycaoriians  appear  to  have  been  in  early  times  to  a 
great  extent  independent  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  were 
like  their  neighbours  the  Isaurians  a  wild  and  lawless  race 
of  freebooters ;  but  their  country  was  traversed  by  one  of 
the  great  natural  lines  of  high  road  through  Asia  Minor, 
from  Sardis  and  Ephesus  to  the  Cilician  gates,  and  a  few 
considerable  towns  would  naturally  grow  up  along  this  line 
of  route.  The  most  important  of  these  was  Iconium,  in 
the  most  fertile  spot  in  the  province,  of  which  it  has  always 
continued  to  be  the  capital.  It  is  still  called  Konieh.  A 
little  farther  north,  immediately  on  the  frontier  of  Phrygia, 
stood  Laodicea  (Ladik),  called  Combusta,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  Phrygian  city  of  that  name ;  and  in  the  south, 
near  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus,  was  Laranda,  now  called 
Karaman,  which  has  given  name  to  the  province  of 
Karamania.  Derbe  and  Lystra,  which  appear  from  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  have  been  considerable  towns,  were 
apparently  situated  in  the  same  part  of  the  district,  but 
their  sites  have  not  been  identified.  The  other  towns 
mentioned  by  ancient  writers  were  insignificant  places. 

The  Lycaonians  appear  to  have  still  retained  a  distinct 
nationality  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  but  we  are  wholly  in  the 
dark  as  to  their  ethnical  affinities,  or  relations  to  the  tribes 
by  which  they  were  surrounded.  The  mention  of  the 
Lycaonian  language  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xiv.  11)  is 
evidently  only  intended  to  designate  the  vernacular  tongue, 
as  opposed  to  Greek,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  any  proof 
that  they  spoke  a  different  language  from  their  neighbours 
the  Phrygians  or  Cappadocians. 

LYCIA,  in  ancient  geography,  was  the  name  given  to  a  Plate  II, 
district  in  the  south-west  of  Asia  Minor,  occupying  the 
portion  of  the  coast  between  Caria  and  Pamphylia,  and 
extending  inland  as  far  as  the  ridge  of  Mount  Taurus.  The 
region  thus  designated  is  one  strongly  marked  by  nature, 
as  constituting  a  kind  of  peninsula  or  promontory  projecting 
towards  the  south  from  the  great  mountain  masses  of  the 
interior.  It  was  also  inhabited  from  a  very  early  period 
by  a  distinct  people,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Lycians,  but 
whose  native  name,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  Termilae, 
or  (as  it  is  written  by  Hecatteus)  Tremilac,  and  this  is  con 
firmed  by  native  inscriptions,  in  v/hich  the  name  is  written 
Tramilce.  Herodotus  tells  us  also  that  they  were  not  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  which  was  previously 
occupied  by  the  Milyans,  and  this  is  rendered  probable  by 
the  fact  that  a  people  of  that  name  was  still  found  in  the 
rugged  mountainous  district  in  the  north-east,  who  appear 
to  hrve  always  continued  distinct  from  the  Lycians.  But 


L  Y  C  I  A 


93 


the  statement  of  the  same  historian  that  they  originally 
came  from  Crete  is  in  the  highest  degree  improbable ;  and 
the  attempts  to  connect  them  with  the  Greek  legendary 
history  through  Sarpedon  and  Lycus,  a  son  of  Pandion, 
'may  be  safely  rejected  as  mere  fictions. 

The  Lycians  alone  among  the  nations  in  the  west  of 
Asia  Minor  preserved  their  independence  against  the  kings 
of  Lydia ;  but  after  the  fall  of  the  Lydian  monarchy  (in 
546  B.C.)  they  were  subdued  by  Harpagus,  the  general  of 
Cyrus,  though  not  till  after  an  obstinate  resistance  in  which 
Xanthus,  their  chief  city,  was  utterly  destroyed.  But, 
though  they  were  from  this  time  nominally  subject  to 
Persia,  they  appear  to  have  enjoyed  a  considerable  amount 
of  independence,  which  they  afterwards  maintained  by  join 
ing  the  Athenian  maritime  league.  They  were  conquered 
almost  without  resistance  by  Alexander,  and  thus  passed 
under  the  Macedonian  dominion,  sometimes  of  the 
Ptolemies,  sometimes  of  the  Seleucidans.  But  through 
all  these  vicissitudes,  as  well  as  after  their  ultimate  sub 
mission  to  the  Roman  power,  they  continued  to  preserve 
their  federal  institutions,  which  remained  unimpaired,  in 
form  at  least,  as  late  as  the  time  of  Augustus.  Strabo, 
who  has  preserved  to  us  an  account  of  their  constitution, 
which  he  regards  as  the  wisest  form  of  federal  government 
with  which  he  was  acquainted  (a  judgment  confirmed  by 
the  high  authority  of  Montesquieu),  tells  us  that  the  league 
consisted  of  twenty-three  cities  in  all,  of  which  the  six 
principal  were  Xanthus,  Patara,  Pinara,  Olympus,  Myra, 
and  Tlos.  These  six  had  each  three  votes  in  the  general 
assembly ;  of  the  remaining  cities  the  more  considerable 
had  each  two  votes,  and  the  rest  only  one.  The  payment 
of  taxes  and  other  public  burthens  were  apportioned  in  the 
same  manner,  and  the  choice  of  the  supreme  magistrate, 
who  was  styled  Lyciarch,  and  the  other  magistrates  of  the 
league  rested  with  the  federal  assembly.  At  the  same  time 
the  internal  affairs  of  each  city  were  managed  by  a  senate 
or  council  (Boule),  and  a  general  assembly  of  the  people 
(Demos),'in  the  same  manner  as  was  usual  with  Greek  cities. 
This  system  of  government  continued  to  subsist  under  the 
Roman  empire,  though  of  course  subject  to  the  control  as 
well  as  protection  of  the  sovereign  power ;  but  in  the  time 
of  Claudius  dissensions  among  the  separate  cities  afforded  a 
pretext  for  the  intervention  of  Rome,  and  Lycia  became 
formally  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  at  first 
united  in  the  same  province  with  Pamphylia ;  but  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  it  was  constituted  a  separate  province. 

Almost "  the  whole  of  Lycia  is  a  rugged  mountainous 
country,  traversed  by  offshoots  and  branches  of  the  great 
range  of  Mount  Taurus,  which  occupies  the  whole  interior 
or  northern  part  of  the  district,  and  sends  down  to  the  sea 
great  arms  or  branches,  constituting  lofty  promontories. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  coast,  though  less  broken  and 
irregular  than  that  of  Caria,  is  indented  by  a  succession  of 
bays, — the  most  marked  of  which  is  that  called  in  ancient 
times  the  Glaucus  Sinus,  now  the  Gulf  of  Macri,  in  the 
extreme  west  of  the  province,  and  separating  Lycia  from 
Caria.  A  number  of  smaller  bays,  and  broken  rocky 
headlands,  with  a  few  small  islets  lying  off  them,  constitute 
the  coast-line  from  thence  to  the  south-eastern  promontory 
of  Lycia,  formed  by  a  long  narrow  tongue  of  rocky  hill, 
known  in  ancient  times  as  the  Sacred  Promontory,  with 
three  small  adjacent  islets,  called  the  Chelidonian  islands, 
which  was  regarded  by  some  ancient  geographers  as  the 
commencement  of  Mount  Taurus — an  opinion  justly  con 
troverted  by  Strabo.  But  it  really  forms  an  important 
point  in  the  geography  of  Asia  Minor,  where  the  coast 
trends  abruptly  to  the  north  till  it  reaches  the  confines  of 
Pamphylia.  It  was  believed  by  Strabo  to  be  directly 
opposite  to  Canopus  in  Egypt,  and  to  be  the  point  where 
the  interval  between  the  two  continents  was  the  shortest. 


Though  the  mountain  ranges  of  Lycia  may  all  be  con 
sidered  as  in  reality  offshoots  of  Mount  Taurus,  several  of 
them  in  ancient  times  were  distinguished  by  separate  names. 
Such  were  Mount  Daedala  in  the  west,  adjoining  the  Gulf 
of  Macri,  Mount  Cragus  on  the  sea-coast,  west  of  the  valley 
of  the  Xanthus,  and  Mount  Massicytus  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  the  region,  rising  to  a  height  of  10,000  feet,  while  Mount 
Solyma  in  the  extreme  east,  above  Phaselis,  rises  abruptly 
from  the  sea  to  an  elevation  of  7800  feet.  The  steep  and 
rugged  pass  between  this  mountain  and  the  sea,  called  the 
Climax,  or  Ladder,  was  the  only  direct  communication 
between  Lycia  and  Pamphylia. 

The  only  two  considerable  rivers  in  Lycia  are  (1)  the 
Xanthus,  which  descends  from  the  central  mass  of  Mount 
Taurus,  and  flows  through  a  narrow  valley  till  it  reaches 
the  city  of  the  same  name,  below  which  it  forms  a  plain  of 
some  extent  before  reaching  the  sea,  and  (2)  the  Limyrus, 
which  enters  the  sea  near  Limyra.  The  Arycandus  and 
the  Andriacus,  which  are  intermediate  between  the  two, 
are  much  less  considerable  streams,  and  do  not  flow  from 
the  central  chain.  The  small  alluvial  plains  at  the  mouths 
of  these  rivers  are  the  only  level  ground  in  Lycia  ;  but  the 
slopes  of  the  hills  that  rise  from  thence  towards  the  moun 
tains  are  covered  with  a  rich  arborescent  vegetation  of  the 
most  beautiful  character.  (See  the  description  of  it  by 
Forbes,  quoted  in  ASIA  MINOR,  vol.  ii.  p.  709.)  The 
upper  valleys  and  mountain  sides  afford  good  pasture  for 
sheep,  and  the  main  range  of  Mount  Taurus  encloses  several 
extensive  yailahs  or  upland  basin-shaped  valleys  of  the 
peculiar  kind  so  characteristic  of  that  range  throughout  its 
extent  (see  ASIA  MINOR,  p.  704). 

It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  the  limits  of  Lycia 
towards  the  interior ;  and  the  boundary  seems  to  have 
varied  repeatedly  at  different  times.  The  high  and  cold 
upland  tract  to  the  north-east,  called  Milyas  (which  was 
supposed  to  retain  some  remains  of  the  aboriginal  popula 
tion  of  Lycia),  was  by  some  writers  included  in  that  pro 
vince,  though  it  is  naturally  more  connected  with  Pisidia. 
A  similar  tract  to  the  west  of  this,  and  also  situated  to  the 
north  of  the  watershed  of  Mount  Taurus,  was  termed 
Cabalia ;  but  this  had  no  natural  connexion  with  Lycia, 
nor  was  in  early  times  ever  politically  united  with  it,  the 
four  cities  that  were  situated  in  this  region — Cibyra,  with 
its  dependent  towns  of  CEnoanda,  Balbura,  and  Bubon — 
having  always  formed  a  separate  league  or  Tetrapolis, 
which  had  no  connexion  with  the  Lycian  league.  It  was 
not  till  after  their  annexation  to  Rome  that  Cibyra,  with 
the  district  adjoining  it,  termed  the  Cibyratis,  was  united 
to  Phrygia,  while  the  three  other  towns  above  enumerated 
were  annexed  to  Lycia. 

According  to  Artemidorus  (whose  authority  is  followed 
by  Strabo),  the  towns  that  formed  the  Lycian  league  in  the 
days  of  its  integrity  were  twenty-three  in  number;  but 
Pliny  tells  us  that  Lycia  once  possessed  seventy  towns,  of 
which  only  twenty-six  remained  in  his  day.  Recent 
researches  have  fully  confirmed  the  fact  that,  notwithstand 
ing  its  rugged  character,  the  sea-coast  and  the  valleys  that 
ran  up  into  the  interior  were  thickly  studded  with  towns, 
which  in  many  cases  are  proved  by  existing  remains  to  have 
been  places  of  considerable  importance.  The  names  have 
been  for  the  most  part  identified  by  means  of  inscriptions, 
and  we  are  thus  enabled  to  fix  the  position  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  cities  that  are  mentioned  in  ancient  authors. 
On  the  Gulf  of  Glaucus,  near  the  frontiers  of  Caria,  stood 
Telmessus,  an  important  place,  while  a  short  distance  from 
it  in  the  interior  were  the  small  towns  of  Daedala  and 
Cadyanda.  At  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  the  Xanthus 
were  Patara,  Xanthus  itself,  and,  a  little  higher  up,  Pinara 
on  the  west  and  Tlos  on  the  east  side  of  the  valley,  while 
Araxa  stood  at  the  head  of  the  valley,  just  at  the  foot  of 


94 


L  Y  C  — L  Y  C 


the  pass  leading  into  the  interior.  Sidyma,  on  the  slope 
of  Mount  Cragus,  seems  also  to  have  borne  the  name  of 
the  mountain,  as  was  also  the  case  with  Massicytus,  if  there 
was  really  a  city  of  the  name  at  all  Myra,  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of  Lycia,  occupied  the  entrance  of 
the  valley  of  the  Andriacus ;  on  the  coast  between  this 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Xanthus  stood  Antiphellus,  while  in 
the  interior,  at  a  short  distance,  were  found  Phellus, 
Cyaneae,  and  Candyba.  In  the  alluvial  plain  formed  by 
the  outlets  of  the  rivers  Arycandus  and  Limyrus  stood 
Limyra,  and  encircling  the  same  bay  the  three  small  towns 
of  Rhodiapolis,  Corydalla,  and  Gagae.  Arycanda  com 
manded  the  upper  valley  of  the  river  of  the  same  name. 
On  the  east  coast  stood  Olympus,  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
league,  though  it  could  never  have  been  more  than  a  small 
town,  while  Phaselis,  a  little  farther  north,  which  was  a  much 
more  important  place,  never  belonged  to  the  Lycian  league, 
and  appears  to  have  always  maintained  an  independent 
position.  We  have  thus  in  all  twenty-one  towns  of  which 
•the  sites  have  been  ascertained,  but  the  occurrence  of  other 
considerable  ruins,  to  which  no  names  can  be  attached  with 
any  certainty,  confirms  the  statement  of  Pliny  as  to  the 
great  number  of  the  Lycian  towns. 

The  cold  upland  district  of  the  Milyas  appears  never  to 
have  contained  any  town  of  importance.  Podalia  seems 
to  have  been  its  chief  place.  Between  the  Milyas  and  the 
Pamphylian  Gulf  was  the  lofty  mountain  range  of  Solyma, 
which  was  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from  the  Solymi,  a 
people  mentioned  by  Homer  in  connexion  with  the  Lycians 
and  the  story  of  Bellerophon.  No  such  name  was  known 
in  historical  times  as  an  ethnic  appellation,  but  they  were 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  the  same  people  with  the 
Milyans,  while  others  regard  them  as  a  distinct  people  of 
Semitic  origin.  It  was  in  the  flank  of  this  mountain,  near  a 
place  called  Deliktash,  that  the  celebrated  fiery  source  called 
the  Chimaera,  which  gave  rise  in  ancient  times  to  so  many 
fables,  was  found.  It  has  been  visited  in  modern  times  by 
Captain  Beaufort,  Messrs  Spratt  and  Forbes,  and  other 
travellers,  but  is  merely  a  stream  of  inflammable  gas 
issuing  from  crevices  in  the  rocks,  such  as  are  found 
in  several  places  in  the  Apennines.  No  traces  of  recent 
volcanic  action  exist  in  Lycia. 

Few  parts  of  Asia  Minor  were  less  known  in  modern  times  than 
Lycia  until  a  very  recent  period.  Captain  Beaufort  was  the  first 
to  visit  several  places  on  the  sea-coast,  and  the  remarkable  rock- 
hewn  tombs  of  Telmessus  had  been  already  described  by  Dr  Clarke, 
but  it  was  Sir  Charles  Fellows  who  first  discovered  and  drew  atten 
tion  to  the  extraordinary  richness  of  the  district  in  ancient  remains, 
especially  of  a  sepulchral  character.  His  two  visits  to  the  country, 
in  1838  and  1840,  were  followed  by  a  more  regular  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  British  Government  in  1842  for  the  purpose  of  transport 
ing  to  England  the  valuable  monuments  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  while  Lieutenant  (now  Admiral)  Spratt  and  Professor 
Edward. Forbes  explored  the  interjor  of  the  district,  and  laid  down 
its  physical  features  on  an  excellent  map.  The  monuments  thus 
brought  to  light  are  certainly  among  the  most  interesting  of  any 
that  have  been  discovered  in  Asia  Minor,  and,  while  showing  the 
strong  influence  of  Greek  art,  both  in  their  architecture  and  sculp 
ture,  prove  also  the  existence  of  a  native  architecture  of  wholly 
distinct  origin,  especially  in  the  rock-cut  tombs,  some  of  which 
present  a  strange  resemblance  to  our  English  Elizabethan  style, 
while  others  distinctly  evince  their  derivation  from  the  simple 
construction  of  the  mud  and  timber  built  cottages  of  the  natives. 
But  the  theatres  that  are  found  in  almost  every  town,  some  of  them 
of  very  large  size,  are  alone  sufficient  to  attest  the  pervading 
influence  of  Greek  civilization  ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
sculptures,  which  are  for  the  most  part  wholly  Greek.  None  of 
them,  indeed,  can  be  ascribed  to  a  very  early  period,  and  hardly 
any  trace  can  be  found  of  the  influence  of  Assyrian  or  other 
Oriental  art. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  these  recent  researches  has 
been  the  discovery  of  numerous  inscriptions  in  the  native  language 
of  the  country,  and  written  in  a  character,  or  at  least  an  alphabet, 
before  unknown,  and  which  appears  to  have  been  peculiar  to  Lycia. 
A  few  of  these  inscriptions  are  fortunately  bilingual,  in  Greek  and 
Lycian,  which  has  afforded  a  clue  to  their  partial  interpretation,  and 


the  investigations  of  Mr  Daniel  Sharpe  in  the  first  instance,  followed 
by  the  more  mature  essays  of  Moritz  Schmidt  and  Savelsberg,  have 
established  the  fact  that  the  Lycian  language  belonged  to  the  great 
Aryan  family,  and  had  close  affinities  with  the  Zend.  The  alpha 
bet  in  which  the  inscriptions  are  written  is  obviously  derived  from 
the  Greek,  no  less  than  twenty-four  of  the  letters  being  identical, 
while  most  of  the  additional  letters  appear  to  have  been  invented  in 
order  to  express  vowel  sounds  which  were  not  distinguished  in 
Greek.  None  of  the  Lycian  inscriptions,  however,  any  more  than 
the  sculptures,  can  lay  claim  to  a  high  antiquity.  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  Greek  alphabet  upon  which  it  was  founded  appears  not  to 
have  been  the  Ionic  alphabet  which  was  in  general  use  in  Asia 
Minor,  but  was  more  akin  to  the  Doric  alphabet  in  use  in  the  Felo- 
pounese. 

For  these  modern  researches  see  A  Journal  written  during  an  Excursion  in 
Asia  Minor,  London,  1831),  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows;  An  Account  of  Discoveries  in 
Lycia,  by  the  same  author,  London,  1841 ;  Travels  in  Lycia,  Milyas,  and  the 
Cibyratis,  by  Lieutenant  Spratt  and  Professor  Edward  Forbes,  2  vols.,  London, 
1847  ;  Moritz  Schmidt,  Neue  Lykische  Studien,  Jena,  1869  ;  Savelsberg,  Beitrage 
zur  Entzifferung  der  Lykischen  Sprachdenkmaler,  Bonn,  1874.  (E.  H.  B.) 

LYCOPHRON  was  a  Greek  poet  who  nourished  at 
Alexandria  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-47 
B.C.).  He  was  born  atChalcis  in  Euboea,  and  was  the  son 
of  Lycus.  He  wrote  a  number  of  tragedies,  forty-six  or 
sixty-four,  and  Suidas  gives  the  title  of  twenty  of  them. 
Only  a  few  lines  are  preserved  of  these  works,  which  gained 
him  a  place  in  the  Pleiad  of  Alexandrian  tragedians.  He 
was  entrusted  by  Ptolemy  with  the  task  of  arranging  the 
comedies  in  the  Alexandrian  library,  and  out  of  this  work 
grew  his  treatise  Trcpl  Koj/^wSuxs,  in  at  least  eleven  books. 
It  seems  to  have  treated  of  the  history  of  comedy,  of  the 
lives  of  the  comic  poets,  and  of  various  topics  subsidiary  to 
the  proper  understanding  of  their  poems,  but  nothing  has 
been  preserved  of  the  work.  One  of  his  poems  called 
Cassandra,  containing  1474  lines  of  iambic,  has  been  pre 
served  entire.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  prophecy  uttered  by 
Cassandra,  and  relates  the  later  fortunes  of  Troy  and  of 
the  Greek  and  Trojan  heroes.  References  to  various  events 
of  mythic  and  of  later  time  are  introduced,  and  the  poem 
ends  with  a  reference  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who  was  to 
unite  Asia  and  Europe  in  his  world-wide  empire.  The 
style,  as  be  fits  a  prophecy,  is  so  enigmatical  as  to  have  pro 
cured  for  Lycophron,  even  among  the  ancients,  the  title  of 
the. "obscure"  (6  orKoreivos).  The  poem  is  evidently  in 
tended  to  display  the  writer's  knowledge  of  obscure  names 
and  uncommon  myths ;  it  is  full  of  unusual  words  of 
doubtful  meaning  gathered  from  the  older  poets,  along 
with  many  long-winded  compounds  coined  by  the  author. 
It  has  none  of  the  qualities  of  poetry,  and  was  probably 
written  not  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  public  but  as  a  show 
piece  for  the  Alexandrian  school.  It  was  very  popular  in 
the  Byzantine  period,  and  was  read  and  commented  on 
very  frequently ;  the  collection  of  scholia  by  I.  and  J. 
Tzetzes  is  very  valuable,  and  the  MSS.  of  the  Cassandra 
are  numerous.  A  few  neat  and  well-turned  lines  which 
have  been  preserved  from  Lycophron's  tragedies  show  a 
much  better  style ;  they  are  said  to  have  been  much  ad 
mired  by  Menedemus  of  Eretria,  although  the  poet  had 
ridiculed  him  in  a  satyric  drama.  Lycophron  is  also  said 
to  have  been  a  skilful  writer  of  anagrams,  a  reputation 
which  does  not  speak  highly  for  his  poetical  character. 

Two  passages  of  the  Cassandra,  1446-50  and  1226-82,  in  which 
the  career  of  the  Roman  people  and  their  universal  empire  are 
spoken  of,  could  evidently  not  have  been  written  by  an  Alexan 
drian  poet  of  250  B.C.  Hence  it  has  been  maintained  by  Niebuhr 
and  others  that  the  poem  was  written  by  a  later  poet  mentioned  by 
Tzetzes,  but  the  opinion  of  Welcker  is  generally  counted  more 
probable,  that  these  paragraphs  are  a  later  interpolation  :  a  pro 
phetic  poem  is  peculiarly  liable  to  have  additions  inserted,  and  the 
Roman  rule  was  the  most  natural  subject  to  add. 

See  Welcker,  Griech.  Trag.  ;  Konze,  DC  Lycophronis  Didionc  ; 
and  Bernhardy's  and  other  histories  of  Greek  literature. 

LYCOPODIUM.  This  and  Selaginella  are  the  two 
chief  genera  of  the  order  Lycopodiacex  or  club  mosses.  They 
are  flowerless  herbs,  and  mostly  creeping ;  but  during  the 
period  of  the  development  of  coal  plants  members  of  this 


L  Y  C  — L  Y  C 


95 


order  attained  to  the  dimensions  of  lofty  trees.  A  remark 
able  bed  of  Scotch  coal  called  the  "  better  bed  "  was  found 
on  microscopical  examination  to  be  almost  entirely  com 
posed  of  the  spores  and  sporanges  of  some  "lycopod." 
There  are  one  hundred  species,  which  occur  in  all  climates, 
five  being  British.  The  leaves  of  lycopodium  are  for  the 
most  part  small,  and  thickly  cover  the  stem  and  branches. 
The  "fertile"  leaves  are  arranged  in  cones,  and  bear 
sporanges  in  their  axils,  containing  spores  of  one  kind 
only  (of  two  kinds  in  Selaginella).  The  prothallium 
developed  from  the  spore  is  a  subterranean  mass  of  tissue 
of  considerable  size,  and  bears  the  male  and  female  struc 
tures  (antheridia  and  archegonia).  Bee  Micrographic 
Diet. ;  Le  Maout  and  Decaisne's  Desc.  and  Anal.  Bot., 
Eng.  ed.,  p.  911  ;  and  Sach's  Text-book  of  Bot.,  Eng.  ed., 
p.  400  sq.  Gerard,  in  1597,  described  two  kinds  of 
lycopodium  (Herball,  p.  1373)  under  the  names  Muscus 
denticulatus  and  Muscus  davatus  (L.  davatum,  L.)  as  "  Club 
Mosse  or  Woolfes  Clawe  Mosse,"  the  names  being  in  Low 
Dutch,  "  Wolfs  Clauwen,"  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
club-like  or  claw-shaped  shoots  to  the  toes  of  a  wolf, 
"whereupon  we  first  named  it  Lycopodion."  Gerard 
also  speaks  of  its  emetic  and  many  other  supposed 
virtues.  L.  Selago,  L.,  and  L.  catharticum,  Hook.,  of  South 
America,  have  been  said  to  be,  at  least  when  fresh, 
cathartic ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  spores  ("  lyco 
podium  powder  "),  lycopodium  as  a  drug  lias  fallen  into 
disuse.  The  powder  is  used  for  rolling  pills  in,  as  a 
dusting  powder  for  infants'  sores,  &c.  It  is  highly  in 
flammable,  and  is  used  in  pyrotechny  and  for  artificial 
lightning  on  the  stage.  If  the  hand  be  covered  with  the 
powder  it  cannot  be  wetted  on  being  plunged  into  water. 
Another  use  of  lycopodium  is  for  dyeing  ;  woollen  cloth 
boiled  with  species  of  lycopodium,  as  L.  davatum,  becomes 
blue  when  dipped  in  a  bath  of  Brazil  wood. 

LYCURGUS,  a  famous  Spartan  lawgiver.  As  even 
the  ancients  themselves  differed  so  widely  in  their  accounts 
of  Lycurgus  that  Plutarch  could  begin  his  life  by  saying 
that  he  could  assert  absolutely  nothing  about  him  which 
was  not  controverted,  it  is  not  surprising  that  modern 
historical  criticism  has  been  disposed  to  relegate  him 
wholly  into  the  region  of  pure  myth.  One  tradition  would 
put  him  as  far  back  as  the  age  of  Troy ;  another  would 
connect  him  with  Homer;  while  Herodotus  implies  that 
he  lived  in  the  10th  century  B.C.  It  is  now  usual,  on  the 
strength  of  a  passage  in  Thucydides  (bk.  i.  chap.  18),  which 
represents  Sparta  as  having  enjoyed  a  well-established 
political  constitution  for  as  much  as  four  hundred  years 
before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  to  assign  him  to  the 
9th  century  B.C.,  and  to  accept  him  as  a  real  historical 
person.  But  as  to  the  character  and  result  of  his  legisla 
tive  work  there  still  remain  very  conflicting  opinions,  due 
to  the  circumstance  that  such  data  as  we  possess  are 
susceptible  of  exceedingly  diverse  inferences  and  inter 
pretations.  Plutarch's  life,  which  is  the  fullest  and  most 
detailed  account  we  have  of  him,  is  not  merely  the  com 
pilation  at  second  hand  of  a  late  age  (2d  century), 
but  also  abounds  in  statements  which  any  one  with  any 
knowledge  of  the  early  growth  of  political  societies  feels  to 
be  inherently  improbable.  Grote  prefers  on  the  whole  to 
be  guided  by  what  may  be  fairly  inferred  from  the  allusions 
to  his  legislation  in  Aristotle,  as  being  one  of  our  earliest 
sources  of  information  and  certainly  the  most  philosophical 
estimate  of  his  work.  With  Thirl  wall  he  takes  him  to  have 
been  a  real  person,  and  assumes  that  he  was  the  instrument 
of  establishing  good  order  among  the  Spartans,  hitherto, 
according  to  Herodotus,  the  most  lawless  of  mankind,  and 
of  thus  laying  the  foundations  of  Spartan  strength  and 
greatness. 

The  traditional  story  was  that  when  acting  as  guardian 


to  his  nephew,  Labotas,  king  of  the  Spartans,  he  imported 
his  new  institutions  from  Crete,  in  which  a  branch  of  the 
Dorian  race  had  for  a  considerable  period  settled  themselves. 
It  was  said  that  he  had  travelled  widely,  and  gathered 
political  wisdom  and  experience  in  Egypt  and  even  in 
India.  With  the  support  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  which 
was  specially  reverenced  by  Dorians,  he  was  able  to  accom 
plish  his  work  and  to  regulate,  down  to  the  smallest  details, 
the  entire  life  of  Sparta.  He  lived  to  see  the  fruit  of  his 
labour,  and,  having  bound  his  fellow  countrymen  to  change 
nothing  in  his  laws  till  his  return,  he  left  then  for  Delphi, 
and  was  never  seen  by  them  again.  The  oracle  declared 
that  Sparta  would  prosper  as  long  as  she  held  fast  by  his 
legislation,  and  upon  this  a  temple  was  built  to  his  honour, 
and  he  was  worshipped  as  a  god. 

It  was  the  fashion  with  writers  like  Plutarch,  from  whom 
our  notions  of  Lycurgus  have  been  mainly  derived,  to 
represent  the  Spartan  lawgiver  as  the  author  of  a  wholly 
new  set  of  laws  and  institutions.  It  need  hardly  be  said 
that  any  such  view  has  long  been  abandoned,  and  that 
Lycurgus's  work,  great  as  it  no  doubt  was,  did  not  go 
beyond  formulating  what  already  existed  in  germ,  and 
was  in  fact  the  peculiar  heritage  of  the  Spartans  as 
members  of  the  Dorian  race.  It  has  been  contended  that 
the  laws  of  Sparta  were  the  typi'cal  Dorian  laws,  and  that 
Sparta  herself  was  the  special  representative,  politically 
and  socially,  of  the  D6rian  race.  It  appears,  however,  to 
have  been  the  general  view  of  the  Greeks  themselves  that 
many  of  her  most  important  institutions,  more  especially 
the  severity  of  her  military  training  and  of  her  home- 
discipline,  were  peculiar  to  Sparta,  and  were  by  no  means 
shared  by  such  states  as  Corinth,  Argos,  Megara,  all  of 
Dorian  origin.  Grote  lays  great  stress  on  this  point 
(History  of  Greece,  chap,  vi.),  and  maintains  that  it  was  the 
singularity  of  the  .Spartan  laws  which  made  such  a  deep 
impression  on  the  Greek  mind.  The  truth  indeed  seems  to 
be  that  Sparta's  political  organization  in  its  main  lines  was 
of  the  Dorian  type,  and  resembles  the  pictures  given  us 
in  the  Homeric  poems,  but  that  much  in  her  social  life  and 
military  arrangements  was  absolutely  unique.  It  is  here 
that  in  all  probability  may  be  traced  the  genius  and  fore 
sight  of  Lycurgus,  and  he  may  thus  well  deserve  the  credit 
of  having  started  Sparta  on  a  new  career. 

The  council  of  elders  (gerousia,  or  senate),  a  distinctive 
feature  of  the  Hellenic  states  generally,  must  have  existed 
at  Sparta  long  before  Lycurgus,  nor  is  it  at  all  certain  that 
he  fixed  its  number  at  twenty-eight,  the  two  kings  who  sat 
and  voted  in  it  making  it  up  to  thirty  members.  It  was 
elected  from  the  people  from  candidates  who  had  reached 
the  age  of  sixty,  and  a  senator  once  elected  was  a  seaator 
for  life.  It  united  the  functions  of  a  deliberative  assembly 
and  of  a  court  of  justice,  and  it  prepared  measures  which 
were  from  time  to  time  submitted  to  periodical  assemblies 
of  the  people,  which,  however,  had  simply  to  accept  or 
reject,  without  any  power  of  amendment  or  criticism.  So 
far  the  constitution  of  Sparta  was  distinctly  oligarchical. 
The  two  kings,  whose  office  was  hereditary,  and  whose  de 
scent  was  from  the  famous  family  of  the  Heraclids,  had 
but  very  limited  political  powers,  and,  with  some  few  excep 
tions,  even  little  more  than  ordinary  senators.  They  owed 
their  position  and  prerogatives  to  the.  religious  sentiment 
of  the  people,  which  reverenced  their  noble  and  quasi- 
divine  origin,  and  accepted  them  as  legitimately  the  high 
priests  of  the  nation,  and  as  specially  qualified  in  great 
emergencies  to  consult  the  Delphic  oracle  and  receive  its 
answers.  An  ample  royal  domain  was  assigned  to  them, 
and  some  rather  delicate  legal  matters,  such  as  the  bestow- 
ment  of  the  hand  of  an  orphan  heiress,  were  entrusted  to 
their  discretion.  By  far  the  most  important  of  their 
duties  was  the  command  of  the  army  on  a  foreign  expedi- 


LYCURGUS 


tion,  with,  however,  the  assistance  of  a  council  of  war.  In 
fact  they  closely  resembled  at  all  points  the  kings  of  the 
heroic  age,  and  the  honour  and  reverence  in  which  they 
were  held  was  far  greater  than  their  actual  power,  which 
really  was  curtailed  within  such  narrow  limits  that  it  was 
not  possible  for  them  to  establish  anything  like  a  tyranny 
or  despotism. 

One  great  check  on  the  kings  was  a  board  of  magistrates, 
annually  elected  by  the  people,  termed  ephors,  a  name  not 
confined  to  Sparta,  whence  we  may  fairly  infer  that  this 
institution  also  by  no  means  owed  its  origin  to  Lycurgus. 
A  comparison  has  been  suggested  between  the  Spartan 
ephors  and  the  tribunes  at  Hume.  Both  were  certainly 
popular  magistrates,  and  as  it  was  at  Rome,  so  too  at  Sparta, 
at  any  rate  in  her  later  days,  these  magistrates  made  them 
selves  the  great  power  in  the  state.  There  was  a  form  of 
ancient  oaths  between  the  king  and  the  ephors,  the  king 
swearing  that  he  would  respect  the  established  laws,  and 
the  ephors  swearing  that  on  that  condition  he  should  retain 
his  authority  and  prerogatives.  The  unanimous  view  of 
antiquity  was  that  it  was  the  special  business  of  the  ephors 
"  to  protect  the  people  and  restrain  the  kings."  We  gather 
from  passages  in  Thucydides  that  they  had  in  his  time  great 
political  influence,  and  in  the  time  of  Aristotle  they  had 
attained  such  a  position  that  he  says  they  did  not  choose 
to  conform  themselves  to  the  strict  discipline  prescribed  to 
Spartan  citizens.  Although  the  king  took  the  command 
in  war,  it  was  for  the  ephors  to  say  when  war  should  be 
made,  and  on  what  terms  peace  should  be  concluded.  Any 
public  magistrate,  the  kings  not  excepted,  was  liable  to  be 
called  to  account  by  them,  while  they  themselves  seem  to 
have  been  irresponsible.  Of  course  the  fact  that  they  were 
annually  elected  necessitated  a  general  conformity  in  their 
policy  to  the  popular  will.  But  so  great  and  arbitrary 
were  their  powers  that  Plato  hints  that  the  Spartan  consti 
tution  might  be  almost  described  as  a  tyranny.  Indeed 
they  were  to  Sparta  what  the  House  of  Commons  is  to 
England,  "the  moving  spring,"  as  Arnold  says  (Thucy., 
App.  II.),  of  the  whole  Spartan  government. 

Of  the  institutions  we  have  described,  not  one,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  peculiar  to  Sparta,  or,  it  may  be  inferred, 
due  to  Lycurgus.  They  were  indeed  all  connected  by 
tradition  with  his  name,  and  we  may  believe  that  he  did 
his  best  to  put  them  on  a  sound  basis,  though,  as  to  the 
ephors,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  they  formed  no  part 
of  the  original  Spartan  constitution.  One  thing  is  certain 
that  there  was  a  permansnce  about  Lycurgus's  work,  what 
ever  it  may  have  been,  to  which  Sparta's  long  freedom  from 
revolution  was  unanimously  attributed.  She  owed  this  no 
doubt  mainly  to  her  peculiar  social  customs  and  usages, 
and  it  is  here  that  in  the  opinion  of  both  Grote  and  Thirl- 
wall  we  must  specially  look  for  the  reforming  hand  of 
Lycurgus. 

It  w.is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  Spartan  should 
be  an  efficient  soldier.  He  was  a  conqueror  in  the  midst 
of  a  subject  population,  to  which  he  stood  in  the  same 
relation  in  which  the  Norman  for  a  time  at  least  stood  to 
the  Saxon.  This  subject  population  was  made  up  of  two 
classes,  the  Perioeci  (dwellers  round  the  city)  and  the 
Helots,  the  first  being  freemen  and  proprietors  scattered 
throughout  the  townships  and  villages  of  Laconia,  with 
some  powers  of  local  self-government,  but  with  no  voice  in 
the  affairs  of  the  state,  while  the  latter  were  simply  serfs, 
attached  to  the  soil  which  they  cultivated,  like  the  villein 
of  the  feudal  period,  for  Spartan  proprietors,  to  whom  they 
paid  a  ren